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Gelino BW, Schlitzer RD, Reed DD, Strickland JC. A systematic review and meta-analysis of test-retest reliability and stability of delay and probability discounting. J Exp Anal Behav 2024; 121:358-372. [PMID: 38499476 PMCID: PMC11078611 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
In this meta-analysis, we describe a benchmark value of delay and probability discounting reliability and stability that might be used to (a) evaluate the meaningfulness of clinically achieved changes in discounting and (b) support the role of discounting as a valid and enduring measure of intertemporal choice. We examined test-retest reliability, stability effect sizes (dz; Cohen, 1992), and relevant moderators across 30 publications comprising 39 independent samples and 262 measures of discounting, identified via a systematic review of PsychInfo, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases. We calculated omnibus effect-size estimates and evaluated the role of proposed moderators using a robust variance estimation meta-regression method. The meta-regression output reflected modest test-retest reliability, r = .670, p < .001, 95% CI [.618, .716]. Discounting was most reliable when measured in the context of temporal constraints, in adult respondents, when using money as a medium, and when reassessed within 1 month. Testing also suggested acceptable stability via nonsignificant and small changes in effect magnitude over time, dz = 0.048, p = .31, 95% CI [-0.051, 0.146]. Clinicians and researchers seeking to measure discounting can consider the contexts when reliability is maximized for specific cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett W. Gelino
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, US
| | - Rebekah D. Schlitzer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, US
| | - Derek D. Reed
- Department of Applied Behavioral Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
- Cofrin Logan Center for Addiction Research and Treatment, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Justin C. Strickland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, US
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2
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Gelino BW, Graham ME, Strickland JC, Glatter HW, Hursh SR, Reed DD. Using behavioral economics to optimize safer undergraduate late-night transportation. J Appl Behav Anal 2024; 57:117-130. [PMID: 37932923 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.1029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Many universities sponsor student-oriented transit services that could reduce alcohol-induced risks but only if services adequately anticipate and adapt to student needs. Human choice data offer an optimal foundation for planning and executing late-night transit services. In this simulated choice experiment, respondents opted to either (a) wait an escalating delay for a free university-sponsored "safe" option, (b) pay an escalating fee for an on-demand rideshare service, or (c) pick a free, immediately available "unsafe" option (e.g., ride with an alcohol-impaired driver). Behavioral-economic nonlinear models of averaged-choice data describe preference across arrangements. Best-fit metrics indicate adequate sensitivity to contextual factors (i.e., wait time, preceding late-night activity). At short delays, students preferred the free transit option. As delays extend beyond 30 min, most students preferred competing alternatives. These data depict a policy-relevant delay threshold to better safeguard undergraduate student safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett W Gelino
- Department of Applied Behavioral Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Madison E Graham
- Department of Applied Behavioral Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Justin C Strickland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hannah W Glatter
- Department of Applied Behavioral Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Steven R Hursh
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Institutes for Behavior Resources, Inc., Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Derek D Reed
- Department of Applied Behavioral Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
- Cofrin-Logan Center for Addiction Research and Treatment, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
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3
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Kim JY, Fienup DM, Reed DD, Jahromi LB. A Rapid Assessment of Sensitivity to Reward Delays and Classwide Token Economy Savings for School-Aged Children. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL EDUCATION 2022:1-24. [PMID: 36532843 PMCID: PMC9744369 DOI: 10.1007/s10864-022-09503-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Delay discounting tasks measure the relation between reinforcer delay and efficacy. The present study established the association between delay discounting and classroom behavior and introduced a brief measure quantifying sensitivity to reward delays for school-aged children. Study 1 reanalyzed data collected by Reed and Martens (J Appl Behav Anal 44(1):1-18, https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2011.44-1, 2011) and found that 1-month delay choices predicted student classroom behavior. Study 2 examined the utility of the 1-month delay indifference point in predicting saving and spending behavior of second-grade students using token economies with two different token production schedules. Collectively, results showed (a) the 1-month delay indifference point predicted classroom behavior, (b) children who discounted less and had greater self-regulation, accrued and saved more tokens, and (c) a variable token production schedule better correlated with discounting than a fixed schedule. Implications are discussed regarding utility of a rapid discounting assessment for applied use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Young Kim
- Psychology Department, Pennsylvania State University—Harrisburg, 777 W Harrisburg Pike, Middletown, PA 17057 USA
- Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, USA
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4
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Furrebøe EF. Qualitative variations in delay discounting: A brief review and future directions. Behav Processes 2022; 200:104666. [PMID: 35680101 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The discounting paradigm has been challenged by an increasing number of studies presenting qualitative variations in the individual discount function. Particularly, the subjective value of a loss does not necessarily systematically decrease with delay to the outcome. Qualitative variation refers to variations in shape rather than steepness of the discount function, such as positive discounting, zero discounting, unsystematic discounting, and negative discounting. Data from three previous studies were analysed in terms of qualitative variations observed in delay discounting patterns. Attention was also given to methods used and to the relationship between the results from the various levels of investigation. We found qualitative differences between discounting of monetary gains and losses on an individual level. While discounting of gains mainly took the form of conventional positive discounting, discounting of losses often took the form of zero discounting or unsystematic discounting. Further, there were more qualitative variations in discounting of both gains and losses among adolescents compared to adults. By examining verbal reports and single choices, we identified some of the rules and consequences involved in these delay discounting patterns. The different rules and consequences observed for the gain and loss scenarios, support that discounting of gains and losses may involve different combinations of reinforcing contingencies. These results point towards a possible way to explain the influences of qualitative variations in delay discounting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elise Frølich Furrebøe
- School of Business and Law, University of Agder, Postboks 422, 4604 Kristiansand, Norway.
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5
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Falligant JM. Using Delay Fading Procedures to Increase Self-Control. Dev Neurorehabil 2020; 23:457-462. [PMID: 32449455 DOI: 10.1080/17518423.2020.1764650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Children and adolescents, relative to adults, disproportionately favor smaller, immediate outcomes over larger, delayed outcomes. From a behavioral perspective, this sensitivity toward immediate rewards constitutes impulsive choice, which characterizes numerous behavioral health problems commonly observed during childhood (particularly among individuals with neurobehavioral disabilities). Accordingly, a variety of behavioral technologies have been developed and are widely implemented in applied settings (e.g., self-monitoring programs, interdependent group contingencies, individualized token reinforcement programs) to reduce impulsive responding and promote self-control. Although there is a plethora of research literature detailing these interventions, several promising delay fading procedures may also have clinical utility in applied treatment contexts. The purpose of the present review is to highlight contemporary behavior-analytic research involving delay fading procedures that may increase self-control among children and adolescents and facilitate additional research in the area of self-control.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Falligant
- Department of Behavioral Psychology, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine , Baltimore, MD, USA
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Falligant JM, Pence ST, Bedell SB. Preferences for token exchange‐production schedules: Effects of task difficulty and token‐production schedules. BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/bin.1706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sacha T. Pence
- Department of Leadership and CounsellingDrake University Des Moines Iowa
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7
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Staubitz JL, Lloyd BP, Reed DD. Effects of self-control training for elementary students with emotional and behavioral disorders. J Appl Behav Anal 2019; 53:857-874. [PMID: 31478218 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Progressive delay training (PDT) has been used to promote self-controlled choices (i.e., selecting a larger, later reward over a smaller, immediate reward) for people with a variety of developmental characteristics. However, the efficacy of PDT has not been evaluated in children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD), who often have co-occurring symptoms of impulsivity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of PDT with a rule-following requirement on the impulsive choices of 6 elementary students with EBD using a modified changing criterion design. Results indicated that PDT alone did not improve self-control, but a modified version of PDT with a rationale and rule for selecting the delayed reward promoted self-control for 3 participants. The remaining 3 participants continued to make impulsive choices despite further modifications to the PDT protocol. We discuss implications of our results and directions for future research on treating impulsivity in children with EBD.
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Hantula DA. Editorial: Reductionism and Holism in Behavior Science and Art. Perspect Behav Sci 2018; 41:325-333. [PMID: 31976397 PMCID: PMC6701733 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-018-00184-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
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9
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Staubitz JL, Lloyd BP, Reed DD. A Summary of Methods for Measuring Delay Discounting in Young Children. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-018-0292-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Hantula DA. Editorial: Retrospections, Prospections and New Paths for Behavioral Science. THE BEHAVIOR ANALYST 2017; 40:291-295. [PMID: 31976971 PMCID: PMC6701249 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-017-0130-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Donald A. Hantula
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Weiss Hall, 1701 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122 USA
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11
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Delay Discounting Rates are Temporally Stable in an Equivalent Present Value Procedure Using Theoretical and Area under the Curve Analyses. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03395804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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12
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Jessel J, Ingvarsson ET, Whipple R, Kirk H. Increasing on-task behavior of an adolescent with autism using momentary differential reinforcement. BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/bin.1480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Jessel
- Department of Behavior Analysis; University of North Texas; Denton TX USA
| | - Einar T. Ingvarsson
- Department of Behavior Analysis; University of North Texas; Denton TX USA
- Behavior Disorders Clinic, Applied Behavior Analysis Department; Child Study Center; Fort Worth TX USA
| | - Ruth Whipple
- Behavior Disorders Clinic, Applied Behavior Analysis Department; Child Study Center; Fort Worth TX USA
| | - Hillary Kirk
- Behavior Disorders Clinic, Applied Behavior Analysis Department; Child Study Center; Fort Worth TX USA
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13
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Ivy JW, Meindl JN, Overley E, Robson KM. Token Economy: A Systematic Review of Procedural Descriptions. Behav Modif 2017; 41:708-737. [DOI: 10.1177/0145445517699559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The token economy is a well-established and widely used behavioral intervention. A token economy is comprised of six procedural components: the target response(s), a token that functions as a conditioned reinforcer, backup reinforcers, and three interconnected schedules of reinforcement. Despite decades of applied research, the extent to which the procedures of a token economy are described in complete and replicable detail has not been evaluated. Given the inherent complexity of a token economy, an analysis of the procedural descriptions may benefit future token economy research and practice. Articles published between 2000 and 2015 that included implementation of a token economy within an applied setting were identified and reviewed with a focus on evaluating the thoroughness of procedural descriptions. The results show that token economy components are regularly omitted or described in vague terms. Of the articles included in this analysis, only 19% (18 of 96 articles reviewed) included replicable and complete descriptions of all primary components. Missing or vague component descriptions could negatively affect future research or applied practice. Recommendations are provided to improve component descriptions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W. Ivy
- The Pennsylvania State University - Harrisburg, Middletown, USA
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14
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Abstract
In recent years, behavioral economics has gained much attention in psychology and public policy. Despite increased interest and continued basic experimental studies, the application of behavioral economics to therapeutic settings remains relatively sparse. Using examples from both basic and applied studies, we provide an overview of the principles comprising behavioral economic perspectives and discuss implications for behavior analysts in practice. A call for further translational research is provided.
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16
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Concurrent Token Production in Rats. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-014-0094-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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17
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Scheres A, de Water E, Mies GW. The neural correlates of temporal reward discounting. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2013; 4:523-545. [PMID: 26304244 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anouk Scheres
- Developmental Psychology; Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University; Nijmegen The Netherlands
| | - Erik de Water
- Developmental Psychology; Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University; Nijmegen The Netherlands
| | - Gabry W. Mies
- Developmental Psychology; Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University; Nijmegen The Netherlands
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18
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Lagorio CH, Hackenberg TD. Risky choice in pigeons: preference for amount variability using a token-reinforcement system. J Exp Anal Behav 2013; 98:139-54. [PMID: 23008519 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2012.98-139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Pigeons were given repeated choices between variable and fixed numbers of token reinforcers (stimulus lamps arrayed above the response keys), with each earned token exchangeable for food. The number of tokens provided by the fixed-amount option remained constant within blocks of sessions, but varied parametrically across phases, assuming values of 2, 4, 6, or 8 tokens per choice. The number of tokens provided by the variable-amount option varied between 0 and 12 tokens per choice, arranged according to an exponential or rectangular distribution. In general, the pigeons strongly preferred the variable option when the fixed option provided equal or greater numbers of tokens than the variable amount. Preference for the variable amount decreased only when the alternatives provided widely disparate amounts favoring the fixed amount. When tokens were removed from the experimental context, preference for the variable option was reduced or eliminated, suggesting that the token presentation played a key role in maintaining risk-prone choice patterns. Choice latencies varied inversely with preferences, suggesting that local analyses may provide useful ancillary measures of reinforcer value. Overall, the results indicate that systematic risk sensitivity can be attained with respect to reinforcer amount, and that tokens may be critical in the development of such preferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla H Lagorio
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire, 105 Garfield Ave., Eau Claire, WI 54702,
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Abstract
A temporal discounting paradigm was used to examine decision making for hypothetical monetary reward following traumatic brain injury (TBI). A case-control design compared individuals following moderate or severe TBI with a healthy control group matched for age and gender. The impact of intelligence, impulsivity, and mood on temporal discounting performance was examined. A within-subjects design for the TBI group determined the influence of a range of neuropsychological tests on temporal discounting performance. Both patients and controls demonstrated temporal discounting. However, the TBI group discounted more than controls, suggesting that their decision making was more impulsive, consistent with ratings on the impulsiveness questionnaire. Discounting performance was independent of neuropsychological measures of intelligence, memory, and executive function. There was no relationship between temporal discounting and ratings of everyday executive function made by patients' relatives. Low mood did not account for discounting performance. The results of this study suggest that temporal discounting may be a useful neuropsychological paradigm to assess decision making linked to monetary reward following TBI. Performance was relatively independent of intelligence, memory and standard tests of executive ability and may therefore assist when assessing a patient's mental capacity to manage their financial affairs.
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Reed DD, Kaplan BA, Brewer AT. A tutorial on the use of Excel 2010 and Excel for Mac 2011 for conducting delay-discounting analyses. J Appl Behav Anal 2013; 45:375-86. [PMID: 22844143 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2012.45-375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2011] [Accepted: 10/06/2011] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, researchers and practitioners in the behavioral sciences have profited from a growing literature on delay discounting. The purpose of this article is to provide readers with a brief tutorial on how to use Microsoft Office Excel 2010 and Excel for Mac 2011 to analyze discounting data to yield parameters for both the hyperbolic discounting model and area under the curve. This tutorial is intended to encourage the quantitative analysis of behavior in both research and applied settings by readers with relatively little formal training in nonlinear regression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek D Reed
- Department of Applied Behavioral Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence 66045, USA.
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Temporal discounting and heart rate reactivity to stress. Behav Processes 2011; 87:306-9. [PMID: 21601618 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2011.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2010] [Revised: 04/27/2011] [Accepted: 05/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Temporal discounting is the reduction of the value of a reinforcer as a function of increasing delay to its presentation. Impulsive individuals discount delayed consequences more rapidly than self-controlled individuals, and impulsivity has been related to substance abuse, gambling, and other problem behaviors. A growing body of literature has identified biological correlates of impulsivity, though little research to date has examined relations between delay discounting and markers of poor health (e.g., cardiovascular reactivity to stress). We evaluated the relation between one aspect of impulsivity, measured using a computerized temporal discounting task, and heart rate reactivity, measured as a change in heart rate from rest during a serial subtraction task. A linear regression showed that individuals who were more reactive to stress responded more impulsively (i.e., discounted delayed reinforcers more rapidly). When results were stratified by gender, the effect was observed for females, but not for males. This finding supports previous research on gender differences in cardiovascular reactivity and suggests that this type of reactivity may be an important correlate of impulsive behavior.
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