Cocaine and food deprivation: effects on food-reinforced fixed-ratio performance in pigeons

Extra (non-contingent) food does not affect behavioral tolerance to d-amphetamine's rate-decreasing effects

Tolerance refers to the diminished effect of a drug following its repeated administration such that a larger dose is needed to obtain the initial effect. Tolerance to a drug's effects on operant behavior is more likely to develop when initial drug administration results in a loss of reinforcement. It remains unknown how offsetting loss of reinforcement influences the development of tolerance. Providing extra (non-contingent) food pellets was hypothesized to impede the development of tolerance to effects of a repeatedly administered dose of d-amphetamine that reduced the number of food pellets earned by rats. A multiple schedule with two variable-interval (VI) 60-s components resulting in food delivery was used to maintain lever pressing. Extra food pellets were provided in one of those components according to a variable-time (VT) 120-s or a VT 30-s schedule for separate groups of rats (n=6 for each group). Effects of d-amphetamine (0.1-3.0mg/kg) were tested before (acute) and during (chronic) injections (45days) of an individually selected, repeatedly administered dose that reduced the number of food pellets earned by at least 50% compared to when saline was tested acutely. There was a dose-dependent decrease in lever-press rates and food pellets earned. The development of tolerance was quantified by dividing the area-under-the-curve (AUC) of the chronic dose-effect function by the AUC of the acute dose-effect function. Tolerance developed to a similar extent in components with and without extra food pellets for rats in both groups. These results indicate that offsetting reinforcement loss, at least as studied here, did not differentially affect tolerance development.

Tolerance to cocaine's effects following chronic administration of a dose without detected effects on response rate or pause

To observe tolerance to drug effects on operant behavior, the dose that researchers have often selected for chronic administration is one that disrupts, but does not abolish, responding. Some evidence suggests that tolerance may develop after chronic administration of relatively smaller doses. The purpose of the present experiment was to assess systematically effects of chronic administration of a dose without detected effect on responding. Specifically, response rates and post-reinforcement pauses of five pigeons key pecking under a three-component multiple fixed-ratio schedule of food reinforcement were observed under chronic cocaine administration. We evaluated the effects of a range of doses (1.0 mg/kg to 17.0  mg/kg) during acute administration. The largest dose that failed to alter responding acutely then was administered chronically (1.0  mg/kg for 1 pigeon, 3.0  mg/kg for 3 pigeons, and 5.6  mg/kg for 1 pigeon). After 30 consecutive sessions of chronic administration, smaller and larger doses occasionally were substituted for the chronic dose. Pigeons then received pre-session saline administration for 30 consecutive sessions, and the post-chronic effects of the series of doses on responding were determined. All subjects developed tolerance to doses of cocaine that initially had caused large decreases in rate, with the magnitude of the effects varying across components of the multiple schedule and subjects. Specifically, tolerance generally was greatest in the components with smaller ratios. Following post-chronic saline administration, tolerance was usually diminished. Overall, the results demonstrate that under these conditions, repeated experience with disruptive effects of cocaine on food-maintained responding is not a necessary factor in the development of tolerance.

Morphine tolerance as a function of ratio schedule: response requirement or unit price?

Key pecking by 3 pigeons was maintained by a multiple fixed-ratio 10, fixed-ratio 30, fixed-ratio 90 schedule of food presentation. Components differed with respect to amount of reinforcement, such that the unit price was 10 responses per 1-s access to food. Acute administration of morphine, l-methadone, and cocaine dose-dependently decreased overall response rates in each of the components. When a rate decreasing dose of morphine was administered daily, tolerance, as measured by an increase in the dose that reduced response rates to 50% of control (i.e., the ED50 value), developed in each of the components; however, the degree of tolerance was smallest in the fixed-ratio 90 component (i.e., the ED50 value increased the least). When the l-methadone dose-effect curve was redetermined during the chronic morphine phase, the degree of cross-tolerance conferred to l-methadone was similar across components, suggesting that behavioral variables may not influence the degree of cross-tolerance between opioids. During the chronic phase, the cocaine dose-effect curve shifted to the right for 2 pigeons and to the left for 1 pigeon, which is consistent with predictions based on the lack of pharmacological similarity between morphine and cocaine. When the morphine, l-methadone, and cocaine dose-effect curves were redetermined after chronic morphine administration ended, the morphine and l-methadone ED50s replicated those obtained prior to chronic morphine administration. The morphine data suggest that the fixed-ratio value (i.e., the absolute output) determines the degree of tolerance and not the unit price.

A comparison of fixed and variable doses of cocaine in producing and augmenting tolerance to its effects on schedule-controlled behavior

Twelve pigeons were trained to peck a key under a fixed-ratio 20-response schedule of food presentation. Acute effects of cocaine (03-10.0 mg/kg), determined by administering the drug once per week, revealed dose-dependent decreases in frequency of key pecking. The pigeons were then divided into six pairs, matched with respect to acute dose-response curves. One of each pair received one of five different doses before each daily session (variable-dosing condition) and the other received a fixed dose equal to the arithmetic average of the doses experienced by its pair mate (fixed-dosing condition). Following 50 days of exposure, subjects in the variable-dosing condition were then switched to the fixed-dosing condition. Dose-response functions were then determined in both groups by substituting doses for the fixed daily dose, once per week. Rate-decreasing effects were attenuated similarly in both groups of subjects, both at the end of the variable-dosing regimen and during subsequent fixed dosing. Next, an attempt was made to increase the degree of tolerance. Specifically, pigeons in the variable-dosing condition were exposed repeatedly to a range of doses in which the largest dose was 1/8 to 1/4 log unit larger than in the original variable-dosing phase. Pigeons in the fixed-dosing group were exposed daily to the largest dose that did not eliminate key pecking by the end of the initial repeated-dosing regimen. Dose effects were determined after at least 35 days of exposure. If the dose-response function had shifted to the right, the largest dose for the variable-dosing subjects was increased by 1/8 to 1/4 log unit and the smallest dose in the sequence was eliminated, and another period of variable dosing commenced. For the fixed-dosing subjects, if the curve had shifted to the right, the fixed dose was increased by 1/8 to 1/4 log unit and the process repeated. Only very modest shifts of the dose-response function to the right were observed, and in several cases curves shifted left after exposure to larger doses. Overall the results suggest that a variable-dosing regimen holds promise as a technique for investigating the development of tolerance to the effects of cocaine, and that the magnitude of tolerance cannot be increased to any great degree by increasing the dose or doses repeatedly experienced. Additionally, it appears that experience with relatively large doses of cocaine may limit the degree to which tolerance can be developed, or decrease the magnitude of tolerance previously observed.

Food-deprivation level alters the effects of morphine on pigeons' key pecking

Four pigeons pecked response keys under a multiple fixed-ratio 30 fixed-interval 5-min schedule of food presentation. Components alternated separated by 15-s timeouts; each was presented six times. Pigeons were maintained at 70%, 85%, and greater than 90% of their free-feeding weights across experimental conditions. When response rates were stable, the effects of morphine (0.56 to 10.0 mg/kg) and saline were investigated. Morphine reduced response rates in a dose-dependent manner under the fixed-ratio schedule and at high doses under the fixed-interval schedule. In some cases, low doses of morphine increased rates under the fixed-interval schedule. When pigeons were less food deprived, reductions in pecking rates occurred at lower doses under both schedules for 3 of 4 birds compared to when they were more food deprived. When pigeons were more food deprived, low doses of morphine increased rates of pecking in the initial portions of fixed intervals by a greater magnitude. Thus, food-deprivation levels altered both the rate-decreasing and rate-increasing effects of morphine. These effects may share a common mechanism with increased locomotor activity produced by drugs and with increased drug self-administration under conditions of more severe food deprivation.