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Peach CJ, Edgington-Mitchell LE, Bunnett NW, Schmidt BL. Protease-activated receptors in health and disease. Physiol Rev 2023; 103:717-785. [PMID: 35901239 PMCID: PMC9662810 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00044.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteases are signaling molecules that specifically control cellular functions by cleaving protease-activated receptors (PARs). The four known PARs are members of the large family of G protein-coupled receptors. These transmembrane receptors control most physiological and pathological processes and are the target of a large proportion of therapeutic drugs. Signaling proteases include enzymes from the circulation; from immune, inflammatory epithelial, and cancer cells; as well as from commensal and pathogenic bacteria. Advances in our understanding of the structure and function of PARs provide insights into how diverse proteases activate these receptors to regulate physiological and pathological processes in most tissues and organ systems. The realization that proteases and PARs are key mediators of disease, coupled with advances in understanding the atomic level structure of PARs and their mechanisms of signaling in subcellular microdomains, has spurred the development of antagonists, some of which have advanced to the clinic. Herein we review the discovery, structure, and function of this receptor system, highlight the contribution of PARs to homeostatic control, and discuss the potential of PAR antagonists for the treatment of major diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe J Peach
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology and Neuroscience Institute, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York
| | - Laura E Edgington-Mitchell
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Bluestone Center for Clinical Research, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York
| | - Nigel W Bunnett
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology and Neuroscience Institute, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York
| | - Brian L Schmidt
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Bluestone Center for Clinical Research, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York
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Rovai ES, Alves T, Gasparoni LM, França BND, Sipert CR, Kantarci A, Holzhausen M. Protease-activated receptor type 1 (PAR1) increases CEMP1 gene expression through MAPK/ERK pathway. Braz Oral Res 2022; 36:e048. [DOI: 10.1590/1807-3107bor-2022.vol36.0048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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Protease-Activated Receptor Type 1 Activation Enhances Osteogenic Activity in Human Periodontal Ligament Stem Cells. Stem Cells Int 2019; 2019:6857386. [PMID: 31281381 PMCID: PMC6589281 DOI: 10.1155/2019/6857386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) has been associated to tissue repair and bone healing. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of PAR1 activation on the osteogenic activity of human periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs). PDLSCs were cultured in the presence of PAR1-selective agonist peptide (100 nM), thrombin (0.1 U/mL), or PAR1 antagonist peptide (100 nM). Calcium deposits, calcium concentration (supernatant), alkaline phosphatase activity (ALP), cell proliferation, and gene (qPCR) and protein expression (ELISA assay) of osteogenic factors were assessed at 2, 7, and 14 days. PAR1 activation led to increased calcium deposits (p < 0.05), calcium concentration (p < 0.05), ALP activity (p < 0.05), and cell proliferation (p < 0.05). Further, PAR1 activation may increase gene and protein expression of Runx2 (p < 0.05) and OPG (p < 0.05). In conclusion, PAR1 activation increases osteogenic activity of PDLSCs, providing a possible new strategy for periodontal regenerative therapies.
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Rovai ES, Holzhausen M. The Role of Proteinase-Activated Receptors 1 and 2 in the Regulation of Periodontal Tissue Metabolism and Disease. J Immunol Res 2017; 2017:5193572. [PMID: 28503577 PMCID: PMC5414592 DOI: 10.1155/2017/5193572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Revised: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteinase-activated receptors 1 (PAR1) and 2 (PAR2) are the most highly expressed members of the PAR family in the periodontium. These receptors regulate periodontal inflammatory and repair processes through their activation by endogenous and bacterial enzymes. PAR1 is expressed by the periodontal cells such as human gingival fibroblasts, gingival epithelial cells, periodontal ligament cells, osteoblasts, and monocytic cells and can be activated by thrombin, matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1), MMP-13, fibrin, and gingipains from Porphyromonas gingivalis. PAR2 is expressed by neutrophils, osteoblasts, oral epithelial cells, and human gingival fibroblasts, and its possible activators in the periodontium are gingipains, neutrophil proteinase 3, and mast cell tryptase. The mechanisms through which PARs can respond to periodontal enzymes and result in appropriate immune responses have until recently been poorly understood. This review discusses recent findings that are beginning to identify a cardinal role for PAR1 and PAR2 on periodontal tissue metabolism.
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MESH Headings
- Adhesins, Bacterial/metabolism
- Animals
- Cells, Cultured
- Cysteine Endopeptidases/metabolism
- Epithelial Cells
- Fibroblasts
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Gingipain Cysteine Endopeptidases
- Gingiva/cytology
- Gingiva/metabolism
- Humans
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 1/genetics
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 1/metabolism
- Mice
- Periodontitis/genetics
- Periodontitis/metabolism
- Periodontitis/physiopathology
- Periodontium/metabolism
- Porphyromonas gingivalis
- Receptor, PAR-1/agonists
- Receptor, PAR-1/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor, PAR-1/genetics
- Receptor, PAR-1/metabolism
- Receptors, Proteinase-Activated/agonists
- Receptors, Proteinase-Activated/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Proteinase-Activated/genetics
- Receptors, Proteinase-Activated/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- E. S. Rovai
- Division of Periodontics, Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - M. Holzhausen
- Division of Periodontics, Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Palm E, Demirel I, Bengtsson T, Khalaf H. The role of toll-like and protease-activated receptors and associated intracellular signaling in Porphyromonas gingivalis-infected gingival fibroblasts. APMIS 2017; 125:157-169. [PMID: 28120492 DOI: 10.1111/apm.12645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Porphyromonas gingivalis, which is considered a keystone agent in periodontitis, has evolved elaborate mechanisms to grow and survive in a hostile milieu. The gingival fibroblast is the major cell type in the gingiva and is considered to be important in the periodontitis-associated inflammation. As a part of the innate immune response, they produce cytokines such as CXCL8 and interleukin (IL)-6 which are believed to contribute to the destruction of the tooth-supporting tissues. This study investigates how the expression of protease-activated receptors (PAR1, PAR2) and toll-like receptors (TLR2, TLR4) changes with P. gingivalis exposure and how silencing of one receptor affects the expression of the other receptors. The importance of protein kinase C (PKC) and p38 in the regulation of CXCL8 and IL-6 was also examined. Receptors were knockdown with small-interfering RNA. PKC or p38 was blocked prior to stimulation with P. gingivalis. Fibroblasts were able to compensate for PAR1 knockdown with increased expression of PAR2. PKC and p38 were involved in the regulation of P. gingivalis-induced CXCL8 and IL-6. Our results indicate that PAR1 and PAR2 could be implicated in periodontitis and that PKC and P38 play a role in the inflammatory response in P. gingivalis-infected gingival fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonor Palm
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Isak Demirel
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Torbjörn Bengtsson
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Hazem Khalaf
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
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Aral K, Berdeli E, Aral CA, Berdeli A, Atan M. Effects of bodybuilding and protein supplements in saliva, gingival crevicular fluid, and serum. J Oral Sci 2017; 59:121-130. [DOI: 10.2334/josnusd.16-0367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Afig Berdeli
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Molecular Medicine Laboratory, Ege University
| | - Merve Atan
- Molecular Medicine Laboratory, Ege University
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Abreu IS, Euzebio Alves VT, Benedete APS, Bueno da Silva HA, França BN, Saraiva L, Lima LA, Carvalho MH, Holzhausen M. Gingival crevicular fluid levels of protease-activated receptors type 1 and type 2 in diabetic patients with periodontitis. J Periodontal Res 2015; 51:577-85. [PMID: 26564991 DOI: 10.1111/jre.12336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Protease activated receptor type 1 (PAR1 ) seems to play a role in periodontal repair, while PAR2 is associated with periodontal inflammation. As diabetes is a known risk factor for periodontal disease, the aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of type 2 diabetes on PAR1 and PAR2 mRNA expression in the gingival crevicular fluid of patients with chronic periodontitis before and after non-surgical periodontal treatment. MATERIAL AND METHODS Gingival crevicular fluid samples and clinical parameters consisting of measuring probing depth, clinical attachment level, bleeding on probing and plaque index were collected from systemically healthy patients and patients with type 2 diabetes and chronic periodontitis, at baseline and after non-surgical periodontal therapy. PAR1 and PAR2 , as well as the presence of the proteases RgpB gingipain and neutrophil proteinase-3 were assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in the gingival crevicular fluid. RESULTS The periodontal clinical parameters significantly improved after periodontal therapy (p < 0.01). Diabetes led to increased expression of PAR1 in gingival crevicular fluid, and in the presence of chronic periodontitis, it significantly decreased the expression of PAR1 and PAR2 (p < 0.05). Moreover, non-surgical periodontal treatment in diabetics resulted in increased expression of PAR1 and PAR2 (p < 0.05), and decreased expression of RgpB gingipain and proteinase-3 (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION The present data demonstrated that diabetes was associated with an altered expression of PAR1 and PAR2 in the gingival crevicular fluid cells of subjects with chronic periodontitis. Future studies are necessary to elucidate the effects of PAR1 upregulation in periodontally healthy sites and PAR2 downregulation in chronic periodontitis sites on the increased susceptibility and severity of periodontitis in diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- I S Abreu
- Division of Periodontics, Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - V T Euzebio Alves
- Division of Periodontics, Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - A P S Benedete
- Division of Periodontics, Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - H A Bueno da Silva
- Division of Periodontics, Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - B N França
- Division of Periodontics, Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - L Saraiva
- Division of Periodontics, Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - L A Lima
- Division of Periodontics, Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - M H Carvalho
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - M Holzhausen
- Division of Periodontics, Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Zhang D, Li S, Hu L, Sheng L, Chen L. Modulation of protease-activated receptor expression by Porphyromonas gingivalis in human gingival epithelial cells. BMC Oral Health 2015; 15:128. [PMID: 26476532 PMCID: PMC4609475 DOI: 10.1186/s12903-015-0105-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Protease-activated receptors (PARs) are G-protein-coupled receptors with an active role in mediating inflammation, pain and other functions. The oral pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) secretes proteases that activate PARs. The aim of this study was to elucidate the role of PARs in the pathogenesis of chronic periodontitis by expression analysis of PARs in human gingival epithelial cells (GECs) before and after P. gingivalis supernatants treatment. Methods GECs were isolated from healthy human gingival tissue samples. The expression of PARs in GECs was determined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and flow cytometry. The effect of P. gingivalis proteases was investigated by quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (QRT-PCR) and flow cytometry. Results PAR-1, PAR-2, and PAR-3 were expressed in GECs. PAR-4 was not found by both RT-PCR and flow cytometry. Analysis of gene expression using QRT-PCR showed an up-regulation of PAR-2 mRNA in comparison to the untreated control cells (P < 0.05). In contrast, the mRNA expressions of PAR-1 and PAR-3 were significantly down-regulated (P > 0.05) in response to P. gingivalis supernatant compared to that in unstimulated control cells. This effect was abrogated by the protease inhibitor TLCK (P < 0.05). The results of flow cytometry indicated PARs protein levels consistent with mRNA levels in the results of QRT-PCR. Conclusions Our study shows that PAR-1, PAR-2 and PAR-3 are expressed in GECs. P. gingivalis proteases play a role in the regulation of innate immune responses in GECs. GECs use PARs to recognize P. gingivalis and mediate cell responses involved in innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diya Zhang
- Dental Department, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310016, China.
| | - Shenglai Li
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Stomatology Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310006, China.
| | - Lingjing Hu
- Department of Oral Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310009, China.
| | - Lieping Sheng
- Dental Department, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310016, China.
| | - Lili Chen
- Department of Oral Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310009, China.
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