Tumor organoids for cancer research and personalized medicine

Tumoroid-On-a-Plate (ToP): Physiologically Relevant Cancer Model Generation and Therapeutic Screening

Employing three-dimensional (3D) in vitro models, including tumor organoids and spheroids, stands pivotal in enhancing cancer therapy. These models bridge the gap between two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures and complex in vivo environments and offer versatile tools for comprehensive studies into cancer progression, drug responses, and tailored therapies. This study introduces the Tumoroid-on-a-Plate (ToP) device, an innovative ope-surface microfluidic platform designed to create predictive 3D models of solid tumors. The ToP device combines tumor mass, stromal cells, and extracellular matrix (ECM) components, to closely replicate the microenvironment of glioblastoma (GBM) and pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Using the advanced ToP model and testing various GBM ECM compositions such as collagen and Rreelin within the model, we can assess how specific elements affect GBM invasiveness. The ToP in vitro model also enables screening chemotherapeutics such as temozolomide and iron-chelators in a single and binary treatment setting on the complex ECM-embedded tumoroids to evaluate their toxicity on GBM and PDAC models viability and apoptosis. Furthermore, co-culturing PDAC tumoroids with human-derived fibroblasts reveals the pro-invasive influence of stromal elements on tumor growth and drug response. This research underscores the value of advanced 3D models like ToP in advancing the understanding of cancer complexity and therapy responses.

Three-Dimensional In Vitro Cell Cultures as a Feasible and Promising Alternative to Two-Dimensional and Animal Models in Cancer Research

Cancer represents one of the diseases with the highest mortality rate worldwide. The burden of cancer continues to increase, not only affecting the health-related quality of life of patients but also causing an elevated global financial impact. The complexity and heterogeneity of cancer pose significant challenges in research and clinical practice, contributing to increase the failure rate of clinical trials for antitumoral drugs. This is partially due to the fact that preclinical models still present important limitations in faithfully recapitulating human tumors to serve as reliable indicators of drug effectiveness. Up to now, research and development strategies employ expensive animal models (including the so-called "humanized mice") that not only raise ethical concerns, but also frequently fail to accurately predict responses to anticancer drugs because they do not faithfully replicate human physiology as well as the patient's tumor microenvironment. On the other side, traditional two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures fail to adequately reproduce the structural organization of tumor and the cellular heterogeneity found in vivo. The growing necessity to develop more accurate cancer models has increasingly emphasized the importance of three-dimensional (3D) in vitro cell cultures, such as cancer-derived spheroids and organoids, as promising alternatives to bridge the gap between 2D and animal models. In this review, we provide a brief overview focusing on 3D in vitro cell cultures as preclinical models capable of properly reproducing the tissue organization, biological composition, and complexity of in vivo tumors in a fine-tuned microenvironment. Despite their limitations, these models collectively enhance our understanding of the mechanisms underlying cancer and may offer the potential for a more reliable assessment of drug efficacy before clinical testing and, consequently, improve therapeutic outcomes for cancer patients.

A reference for selecting an appropriate method for generating glioblastoma organoids from the application perspective

Glioblastoma organoids (GBOs) serve as a powerful and reliable tool to study glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) and glioblastoma (GBM). GBOs can be derived from different materials using different methods. To identify the predominant generation methods and the most applications of GBOs, we searched four databases (PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Wiley Online Laboratory) from August 2021 to August 2023. After screening, 42 out of 295 articles were included and analyzed. GBOs in these articles were generated using only one material, such as tumor tissues, tumor cells, and gene-edited multifunctional stem cells, or simultaneously using two materials, such as tumor cells and normal organoids. Methodologically, direct cultivation of GBM cells or tissues was the most commonly used method to generate GBOs. Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) were the frequently used multifunctional stem cells to generate GBOs by simultaneously silencing P53, NF1, and PTEN using CRISPR/Cas9. In terms of applications, GBOs generated by direct cultivation of GBM tissue had the most applications, including molecular mechanisms, therapy, and culture technique. This review provides a theoretical reference for selecting an appropriate method to generate GBOs when studying GSCs and GBM.

From Crypts to Cancer: A Holistic Perspective on Colorectal Carcinogenesis and Therapeutic Strategies

Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents a significant global health burden, with high incidence and mortality rates worldwide. Recent progress in research highlights the distinct clinical and molecular characteristics of colon versus rectal cancers, underscoring tumor location's importance in treatment approaches. This article provides a comprehensive review of our current understanding of CRC epidemiology, risk factors, molecular pathogenesis, and management strategies. We also present the intricate cellular architecture of colonic crypts and their roles in intestinal homeostasis. Colorectal carcinogenesis multistep processes are also described, covering the conventional adenoma-carcinoma sequence, alternative serrated pathways, and the influential Vogelstein model, which proposes sequential APC, KRAS, and TP53 alterations as drivers. The consensus molecular CRC subtypes (CMS1-CMS4) are examined, shedding light on disease heterogeneity and personalized therapy implications.

Advances and Applications of Cancer Organoids in Drug Screening and Personalized Medicine

In recent years, the rapid emergence of 3D organoid technology has garnered significant attention from researchers. These miniature models accurately replicate the structure and function of human tissues and organs, offering more physiologically relevant platforms for cancer research. These intricate 3D structures not only serve as promising models for studying human cancer, but also significantly contribute to the advancement of various potential applications in the field of cancer research. To date, organoids have been efficiently constructed from both normal and malignant tissues originating from patients. Using such bioengineering platforms, simulations of infections and cancer processes, mutations and carcinogenesis can be achieved, and organoid technology is also expected to facilitate drug testing and personalized therapies. In conclusion, regenerative medicine has the potential to enhance organoid technology and current transplantation treatments by utilizing genetically identical healthy organoids as substitutes for irreversibly deteriorating diseased organs. This review explored the evolution of cancer organoids and emphasized the significant role these models play in fundamental research and the advancement of personalized medicine in oncology.

3D Models of Sarcomas: The Next-generation Tool for Personalized Medicine

Sarcoma is a complex and heterogeneous cancer that has been difficult to study in vitro. While two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures and mouse models have been the dominant research tools, three-dimensional (3D) culture systems such as organoids have emerged as promising alternatives. In this review, we discuss recent developments in sarcoma organoid culture, with a focus on their potential as tools for drug screening and biobanking. We also highlight the ways in which sarcoma organoids have been used to investigate the mechanisms of gene regulation, drug resistance, metastasis, and immune interactions. Sarcoma organoids have shown to retain characteristics of in vivo biology within an in vitro system, making them a more representative model for sarcoma research. Our review suggests that sarcoma organoids offer a potential path forward for translational research in this field and may provide a platform for developing personalized therapies for sarcoma patients.

Cancer organoids: A platform in basic and translational research

An accumulation of previous work has established organoids as good preclinical models of human tumors, facilitating translation from basic research to clinical practice. They are changing the paradigm of preclinical cancer research because they can recapitulate the heterogeneity and pathophysiology of human cancers and more closely approximate the complex tissue environment and structure found in clinical tumors than in vitro cell lines and animal models. However, the potential applications of cancer organoids remain to be comprehensively summarized. In the review, we firstly describe what is currently known about cancer organoid culture and then discuss in depth the basic mechanisms, including tumorigenesis and tumor metastasis, and describe recent advances in patient-derived tumor organoids (PDOs) for drug screening and immunological studies. Finally, the present challenges faced by organoid technology in clinical practice and its prospects are discussed. This review highlights that organoids may offer a novel therapeutic strategy for cancer research.

Tumor-derived systems as novel biomedical tools-turning the enemy into an ally

Cancer is a complex illness that presents significant challenges in its understanding and treatment. The classic definition, "a group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells in the body," fails to convey the intricate interaction between the many entities involved in cancer. Recent advancements in the field of cancer research have shed light on the role played by individual cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment as a whole in tumor development and progression. This breakthrough enables the utilization of the tumor and its components as biological tools, opening new possibilities. This article delves deeply into the concept of "tumor-derived systems", an umbrella term for tools sourced from the tumor that aid in combatting it. It includes cancer cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (for tumor theranostics), extracellular vesicles (for tumor diagnosis/therapy), tumor cell lysates (for cancer vaccine development), and engineered cancer cells/organoids (for cancer research). This review seeks to offer a complete overview of the tumor-derived materials that are utilized in cancer research, as well as their current stages of development and implementation. It is aimed primarily at researchers working at the interface of cancer biology and biomedical engineering, and it provides vital insights into this fast-growing topic.

Organoid-on-a-chip: Current challenges, trends, and future scope toward medicine

In vitro organoid models, typically defined as 3D multicellular aggregates, have been extensively used as a promising tool in drug screening, disease progression research, and precision medicine. Combined with advanced microfluidics technique, organoid-on-a-chip can flexibly replicate in vivo organs within the biomimetic physiological microenvironment by accurately regulating different parameters, such as fluid conditions and concentration gradients of biochemical factors. Since engineered organ reconstruction has opened a new paradigm in biomedicine, innovative approaches are increasingly required in micro-nano fabrication, tissue construction, and development of pharmaceutical products. In this Perspective review, the advantages and characteristics of organoid-on-a-chip are first introduced. Challenges in current organoid culture, extracellular matrix building, and device manufacturing techniques are subsequently demonstrated, followed by potential alternative approaches, respectively. The future directions and emerging application scenarios of organoid-on-a-chip are finally prospected to further satisfy the clinical demands.

Mini-organs with big impact: Organoids in liver cancer studies

Hepatocellular carcinoma, the most common primary liver cancer and a leading cause of death, is a difficult disease to treat due to its heterogeneous nature. Traditional models, such as 2D culture and patient-derived xenografts, have not proven effective. However, the development of 3D culture techniques, such as organoids, which can mimic the tumor microenvironment (TME) and preserve heterogeneity and pathophysiological properties of tumor cells, offers new opportunities for treatment and research. Organoids also have the potential for biomarker detection and personalized medication, as well as genome editing using CRISPR/Cas9 to study the behavior of certain genes and therapeutic interventions. This review explores to-the-date development of organoids with a focus on TME modeling in 3D organoid cultures. Further, it discusses gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9 in organoids, the challenges faced, and the prospects in the field of organoids.

Advances in the application of 3D tumor models in precision oncology and drug screening

Traditional tumor models cannot perfectly simulate the real state of tumors in vivo, resulting in the termination of many clinical trials. 3D tumor models’ technology provides new in vitro models that bridge the gap between in vitro and in vivo findings, and organoids maintain the properties of the original tissue over a long period of culture, which enables extensive research in this area. In addition, they can be used as a substitute for animal and in vitro models, and organoids can be established from patients’ normal and malignant tissues, with unique advantages in clinical drug development and in guiding individualized therapies. 3D tumor models also provide a promising platform for high-throughput research, drug and toxicity testing, disease modeling, and regenerative medicine. This report summarizes the 3D tumor model, including evidence regarding the 3D tumor cell culture model, 3D tumor slice model, and organoid culture model. In addition, it provides evidence regarding the application of 3D tumor organoid models in precision oncology and drug screening. The aim of this report is to elucidate the value of 3D tumor models in cancer research and provide a preclinical reference for the precise treatment of cancer patients.

Living biobank-based cancer organoids: prospects and challenges in cancer research

Biobanks bridge the gap between basic and translational research. Traditional cancer biobanks typically contain normal and tumor tissues, and matched blood. However, biospecimens in traditional biobanks are usually nonrenewable. In recent years, increased interest has focused on establishing living biobanks, including organoid biobanks, for the collection and storage of viable and functional tissues for long periods of time. The organoid model is based on a 3D in vitro cell culture system, is highly similar to primary tissues and organs in vivo, and can recapitulate the phenotypic and genetic characteristics of target organs. Publications on cancer organoids have recently increased, and many types of cancer organoids have been used for modeling cancer processes, as well as for drug discovery and screening. On the basis of the current research status, more exploration of cancer organoids through technical advancements is required to improve reproducibility and scalability. Moreover, given the natural characteristics of organoids, greater attention must be paid to ethical considerations. Here, we summarize recent advances in cancer organoid biobanking research, encompassing rectal, gastric, pancreatic, breast, and glioblastoma cancers. Living cancer biobanks that contain cancerous tissues and matched organoids with different genetic backgrounds, subtypes, and individualized characteristics will eventually contribute to the understanding of cancer and ultimately facilitate the development of innovative treatments.