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Mikhail D, Milad D, Antaki F, Hammamji K, Qian CX, Rezende FA, Duval R. The role of artificial intelligence in macular hole management: A scoping review. Surv Ophthalmol 2024:S0039-6257(24)00123-1. [PMID: 39357748 DOI: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2024.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 09/16/2024] [Accepted: 09/23/2024] [Indexed: 10/04/2024]
Abstract
NARRATIVE ABSTRACT We focus on the utility of artificial intelligence (AI) in the management of macular hole (MH). We synthesize 25 studies, comprehensively reporting on each AI model's development strategy, validation, tasks, performance, strengths, and limitations. All models analyzed ophthalmic images, and 5 (20 %) also analyzed clinical features. Study objectives were categorized based on 3 stages of MH care: diagnosis, identification of MH characteristics, and postoperative predictions of hole closure and vision recovery. Twenty-two (88 %) AI models underwent supervised learning, and the models were most often deployed to determine a MH diagnosis. None of the articles applied AI to guiding treatment plans. AI model performance was compared to other algorithms and to human graders. Of the 10 studies comparing AI to human graders (i.e., retinal specialists, general ophthalmologists, and ophthalmology trainees), 5 (50 %) reported equivalent or higher performance. Overall, AI analysis of images and clinical characteristics in MH demonstrated high diagnostic and predictive accuracy. Convolutional neural networks comprised the majority of included AI models, including those which were high performing. Future research may consider validating algorithms to propose personalized treatment plans and explore clinical use of the aforementioned algorithms.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Mikhail
- Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Daniel Milad
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology, Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, Montreal, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CHUM), Montreal, Canada
| | - Fares Antaki
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CHUM), Montreal, Canada
| | - Karim Hammamji
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CHUM), Montreal, Canada
| | - Cynthia X Qian
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology, Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, Montreal, Canada
| | - Flavio A Rezende
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology, Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, Montreal, Canada
| | - Renaud Duval
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology, Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, Montreal, Canada.
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Wang MT, Cai YR, Jang V, Meng HJ, Sun LB, Deng LM, Liu YW, Zou WJ. Establishment of a corneal ulcer prognostic model based on machine learning. Sci Rep 2024; 14:16154. [PMID: 38997339 PMCID: PMC11245505 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-66608-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Corneal infection is a major public health concern worldwide and the most common cause of unilateral corneal blindness. Toxic effects of different microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, worsen keratitis leading to corneal perforation even with optimal drug treatment. The cornea forms the main refractive surface of the eye. Diseases affecting the cornea can cause severe visual impairment. Therefore, it is crucial to analyze the risk of corneal perforation and visual impairment in corneal ulcer patients for making early treatment strategies. The modeling of a fully automated prognostic model system was performed in two parts. In the first part, the dataset contained 4973 slit lamp images of corneal ulcer patients in three centers. A deep learning model was developed and tested for segmenting and classifying five lesions (corneal ulcer, corneal scar, hypopyon, corneal descementocele, and corneal neovascularization) in the eyes of corneal ulcer patients. Further, hierarchical quantification was carried out based on policy rules. In the second part, the dataset included clinical data (name, gender, age, best corrected visual acuity, and type of corneal ulcer) of 240 patients with corneal ulcers and respective 1010 slit lamp images under two light sources (natural light and cobalt blue light). The slit lamp images were then quantified hierarchically according to the policy rules developed in the first part of the modeling. Combining the above clinical data, the features were used to build the final prognostic model system for corneal ulcer perforation outcome and visual impairment using machine learning algorithms such as XGBoost, LightGBM. The ROC curve area (AUC value) evaluated the model's performance. For segmentation of the five lesions, the accuracy rates of hypopyon, descemetocele, corneal ulcer under blue light, and corneal neovascularization were 96.86, 91.64, 90.51, and 93.97, respectively. For the corneal scar lesion classification, the accuracy rate of the final model was 69.76. The XGBoost model performed the best in predicting the 1-month prognosis of patients, with an AUC of 0.81 (95% CI 0.63-1.00) for ulcer perforation and an AUC of 0.77 (95% CI 0.63-0.91) for visual impairment. In predicting the 3-month prognosis of patients, the XGBoost model received the best AUC of 0.97 (95% CI 0.92-1.00) for ulcer perforation, while the LightGBM model achieved the best performance with an AUC of 0.98 (95% CI 0.94-1.00) for visual impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Tong Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, 22 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China
| | - You-Ran Cai
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, 22 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China
| | - Vlon Jang
- Qi Dian Fu Liu Technology Co.Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Hong-Jian Meng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, China
| | - Ling-Bo Sun
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ruikang Hospital Affiliated to Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, China
| | - Li-Min Deng
- Department of Ophthalmology, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region People's Hospital, Nanning, China
| | - Yu-Wen Liu
- School of Medicine, Eye Institute of Xiamen University, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Wen-Jin Zou
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, 22 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China.
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Waisberg E, Ong J, Kamran SA, Masalkhi M, Paladugu P, Zaman N, Lee AG, Tavakkoli A. Generative artificial intelligence in ophthalmology. Surv Ophthalmol 2024:S0039-6257(24)00044-4. [PMID: 38762072 DOI: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2024.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
Generative AI has revolutionized medicine over the past several years. A generative adversarial network (GAN) is a deep learning framework that has become a powerful technique in medicine, particularly in ophthalmology and image analysis. In this paper we review the current ophthalmic literature involving GANs, and highlight key contributions in the field. We briefly touch on ChatGPT, another application of generative AI, and its potential in ophthalmology. We also explore the potential uses for GANs in ocular imaging, with a specific emphasis on 3 primary domains: image enhancement, disease identification, and generating of synthetic data. PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, Google Scholar were searched from inception to October 30, 2022 to identify applications of GAN in ophthalmology. A total of 40 papers were included in this review. We cover various applications of GANs in ophthalmic-related imaging including optical coherence tomography, orbital magnetic resonance imaging, fundus photography, and ultrasound; however, we also highlight several challenges, that resulted in the generation of inaccurate and atypical results during certain iterations. Finally, we examine future directions and considerations for generative AI in ophthalmology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan Waisberg
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | - Joshua Ong
- Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Sharif Amit Kamran
- School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Mouayad Masalkhi
- School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Phani Paladugu
- Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States; Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Nasif Zaman
- Human-Machine Perception Laboratory, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada, United States
| | - Andrew G Lee
- Center for Space Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States; Department of Ophthalmology, Blanton Eye Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, United States; The Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, United States; Departments of Ophthalmology, Neurology, and Neurosurgery, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, United States; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States; University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States; Texas A&M College of Medicine, Texas, United States; Department of Ophthalmology, The University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, Iowa, United States
| | - Alireza Tavakkoli
- Human-Machine Perception Laboratory, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada, United States
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4
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Kottaridou E, Hatoum A. Imaging of Anterior Segment Tumours: A Comparison of Ultrasound Biomicroscopy Versus Anterior Segment Optical Coherence Tomography. Cureus 2024; 16:e52578. [PMID: 38249646 PMCID: PMC10798380 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.52578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Anterior segment tumours of the eye are relatively rare but can pose significant morbidity and mortality. We conducted a literature review to compare the performance of ultrasound biomicroscopy to anterior segment optical coherence tomography in the imaging of these tumours. A total of seven studies were included accounting for a cumulative 1,114 eyes. Ultrasound biomicroscopy has traditionally formed, and remains, the mainstay of tumour imaging due to its ability to penetrate pigmented lesions and delineate the posterior border of tumours, and the current evidence supports this.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adam Hatoum
- Accident and Emergency, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, GBR
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Ren PF, Tang XY, Yu CY, Zhu LL, Yang WH, Shen Y. Evaluation of a novel deep learning based screening system for pathologic myopia. Int J Ophthalmol 2023; 16:1417-1423. [PMID: 37724265 PMCID: PMC10475629 DOI: 10.18240/ijo.2023.09.07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To evaluate the clinical application value of the artificial intelligence assisted pathologic myopia (PM-AI) diagnosis model based on deep learning. METHODS A total of 1156 readable color fundus photographs were collected and annotated based on the diagnostic criteria of Meta-pathologic myopia (PM) (2015). The PM-AI system and four eye doctors (retinal specialists 1 and 2, and ophthalmologists 1 and 2) independently evaluated the color fundus photographs to determine whether they were indicative of PM or not and the presence of myopic choroidal neovascularization (mCNV). The performance of identification for PM and mCNV by the PM-AI system and the eye doctors was compared and evaluated via the relevant statistical analysis. RESULTS For PM identification, the sensitivity of the PM-AI system was 98.17%, which was comparable to specialist 1 (P=0.307), but was higher than specialist 2 and ophthalmologists 1 and 2 (P<0.001). The specificity of the PM-AI system was 93.06%, which was lower than specialists 1 and 2, but was higher than ophthalmologists 1 and 2. The PM-AI system showed the Kappa value of 0.904, while the Kappa values of specialists 1, 2 and ophthalmologists 1, 2 were 0.968, 0.916, 0.772 and 0.730, respectively. For mCNV identification, the AI system showed the sensitivity of 84.06%, which was comparable to specialists 1, 2 and ophthalmologist 2 (P>0.05), and was higher than ophthalmologist 1. The specificity of the PM-AI system was 95.31%, which was lower than specialists 1 and 2, but higher than ophthalmologists 1 and 2. The PM-AI system gave the Kappa value of 0.624, while the Kappa values of specialists 1, 2 and ophthalmologists 1 and 2 were 0.864, 0.732, 0.304 and 0.238, respectively. CONCLUSION In comparison to the senior ophthalmologists, the PM-AI system based on deep learning exhibits excellent performance in PM and mCNV identification. The effectiveness of PM-AI system is an auxiliary diagnosis tool for clinical screening of PM and mCNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Fang Ren
- Department of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Xu-Yuan Tang
- Department of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Chen-Ying Yu
- Department of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Li-Li Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Wei-Hua Yang
- Shenzhen Eye Hospital, Jinan University, Shenzhen 518040, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ye Shen
- Department of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, Zhejiang Province, China
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6
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Shao Y, Jie Y, Liu ZG. Guidelines for the application of artificial intelligence in the diagnosis of anterior segment diseases (2023). Int J Ophthalmol 2023; 16:1373-1385. [PMID: 37724278 PMCID: PMC10475626 DOI: 10.18240/ijo.2023.09.03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The landscape of ophthalmology has observed monumental shifts with the advent of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. This article is devoted to elaborating on the nuanced application of AI in the diagnostic realm of anterior segment eye diseases, an area ripe with potential yet complex in its imaging characteristics. Historically, AI's entrenchment in ophthalmology was predominantly rooted in the posterior segment. However, the evolution of machine learning paradigms, particularly with the advent of deep learning methodologies, has reframed the focus. When combined with the exponential surge in available electronic image data pertaining to the anterior segment, AI's role in diagnosing corneal, conjunctival, lens, and eyelid pathologies has been solidified and has emerged from the realm of theoretical to practical. In light of this transformative potential, collaborations between the Ophthalmic Imaging and Intelligent Medicine Subcommittee of the China Medical Education Association and the Ophthalmology Committee of the International Translational Medicine Association have been instrumental. These eminent bodies mobilized a consortium of experts to dissect and assimilate advancements from both national and international quarters. Their mandate was not limited to AI's application in anterior segment pathologies like the cornea, conjunctiva, lens, and eyelids, but also ventured into deciphering the existing impediments and envisioning future trajectories. After iterative deliberations, the consensus synthesized herein serves as a touchstone, assisting ophthalmologists in optimally integrating AI into their diagnostic decisions and bolstering clinical research. Through this guideline, we aspire to offer a comprehensive framework, ensuring that clinical decisions are not merely informed but transformed by AI. By building upon existing literature yet maintaining the highest standards of originality, this document stands as a testament to both innovation and academic integrity, in line with the ethos of renowned journals such as Ophthalmology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Shao
- Department of Ophthalmology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Ying Jie
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University; Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Laboratory, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Zu-Guo Liu
- Eye Institute of Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian Province, China
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7
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Automated cataract disease detection on anterior segment eye images using adaptive thresholding and fine tuned inception-v3 model. Biomed Signal Process Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2022.104550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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8
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Kikukawa Y, Tanaka S, Kosugi T, Pflugfelder SC. Non-invasive and objective tear film breakup detection on interference color images using convolutional neural networks. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0282973. [PMID: 36913382 PMCID: PMC10010540 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Dry eye disease affects hundreds of millions of people worldwide and is one of the most common causes for visits to eye care practitioners. The fluorescein tear breakup time test is currently widely used to diagnose dry eye disease, but it is an invasive and subjective method, thus resulting in variability in diagnostic results. This study aimed to develop an objective method to detect tear breakup using the convolutional neural networks on the tear film images taken by the non-invasive device KOWA DR-1α. METHODS The image classification models for detecting characteristics of tear film images were constructed using transfer learning of the pre-trained ResNet50 model. The models were trained using a total of 9,089 image patches extracted from video data of 350 eyes of 178 subjects taken by the KOWA DR-1α. The trained models were evaluated based on the classification results for each class and overall accuracy of the test data in the six-fold cross validation. The performance of the tear breakup detection method using the models was evaluated by calculating the area under curve (AUC) of receiver operating characteristic, sensitivity, and specificity using the detection results of 13,471 frame images with breakup presence/absence labels. RESULTS The performance of the trained models was 92.3%, 83.4%, and 95.2% for accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity, respectively in classifying the test data into the tear breakup or non-breakup group. Our method using the trained models achieved an AUC of 0.898, a sensitivity of 84.3%, and a specificity of 83.3% in detecting tear breakup for a frame image. CONCLUSIONS We were able to develop a method to detect tear breakup on images taken by the KOWA DR-1α. This method could be applied to the clinical use of non-invasive and objective tear breakup time test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasushi Kikukawa
- Kowa Ophthalmic Research Laboratories, Kowa Research Institute, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | | | - Takuya Kosugi
- Kowa Ophthalmic Research Laboratories, Kowa Research Institute, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Stephen C. Pflugfelder
- Department of Ophthalmology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
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9
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Yang HK, Che SA, Hyon JY, Han SB. Integration of Artificial Intelligence into the Approach for Diagnosis and Monitoring of Dry Eye Disease. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:3167. [PMID: 36553174 PMCID: PMC9777416 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12123167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Dry eye disease (DED) is one of the most common diseases worldwide that can lead to a significant impairment of quality of life. The diagnosis and treatment of the disease are often challenging because of the lack of correlation between the signs and symptoms, limited reliability of diagnostic tests, and absence of established consensus on the diagnostic criteria. The advancement of machine learning, particularly deep learning technology, has enabled the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in various anterior segment disorders, including DED. Currently, many studies have reported promising results of AI-based algorithms for the accurate diagnosis of DED and precise and reliable assessment of data obtained by imaging devices for DED. Thus, the integration of AI into clinical approaches for DED can enhance diagnostic and therapeutic performance. In this review, in addition to a brief summary of the application of AI in anterior segment diseases, we will provide an overview of studies regarding the application of AI in DED and discuss the recent advances in the integration of AI into the clinical approach for DED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee Kyung Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam 13620, Republic of Korea
| | - Song A Che
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Kangwon National University Hospital, Chuncheon 24289, Republic of Korea
| | - Joon Young Hyon
- Department of Ophthalmology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam 13620, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Beom Han
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Kangwon National University Hospital, Chuncheon 24289, Republic of Korea
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Artificial intelligence has advanced rapidly in recent years and has provided powerful tools to aid with the diagnosis, management, and treatment of ophthalmic diseases. This article aims to review the most current clinical artificial intelligence applications in anterior segment diseases, with an emphasis on microbial keratitis, keratoconus, dry eye syndrome, and Fuchs endothelial dystrophy. RECENT FINDINGS Most current artificial intelligence approaches have focused on developing deep learning algorithms based on various imaging modalities. Algorithms have been developed to detect and differentiate microbial keratitis classes and quantify microbial keratitis features. Artificial intelligence may aid with early detection and staging of keratoconus. Many advances have been made to detect, segment, and quantify features of dry eye syndrome and Fuchs. There is significant variability in the reporting of methodology, patient population, and outcome metrics. SUMMARY Artificial intelligence shows great promise in detecting, diagnosing, grading, and measuring diseases. There is a need for standardization of reporting to improve the transparency, validity, and comparability of algorithms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Kang
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Dena Ballouz
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Maria A. Woodward
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
- Institute for Healthcare Policy and Innovation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh G Honavar
- Editor, Indian Journal of Ophthalmology, Centre for Sight, Road No 2, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
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12
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Zhang C, Zhao J, Zhu Z, Li Y, Li K, Wang Y, Zheng Y. Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Myopia: Current and Future Directions. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:840498. [PMID: 35360739 PMCID: PMC8962670 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.840498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
With the continuous development of computer technology, big data acquisition and imaging methods, the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in medical fields is expanding. The use of machine learning and deep learning in the diagnosis and treatment of ophthalmic diseases is becoming more widespread. As one of the main causes of visual impairment, myopia has a high global prevalence. Early screening or diagnosis of myopia, combined with other effective therapeutic interventions, is very important to maintain a patient's visual function and quality of life. Through the training of fundus photography, optical coherence tomography, and slit lamp images and through platforms provided by telemedicine, AI shows great application potential in the detection, diagnosis, progression prediction and treatment of myopia. In addition, AI models and wearable devices based on other forms of data also perform well in the behavioral intervention of myopia patients. Admittedly, there are still some challenges in the practical application of AI in myopia, such as the standardization of datasets; acceptance attitudes of users; and ethical, legal and regulatory issues. This paper reviews the clinical application status, potential challenges and future directions of AI in myopia and proposes that the establishment of an AI-integrated telemedicine platform will be a new direction for myopia management in the post-COVID-19 period.
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Keenan TDL, Chen Q, Agrón E, Tham YC, Lin Goh JH, Lei X, Ng YP, Liu Y, Xu X, Cheng CY, Bikbov MM, Jonas JB, Bhandari S, Broadhead GK, Colyer MH, Corsini J, Cousineau-Krieger C, Gensheimer W, Grasic D, Lamba T, Magone MT, Maiberger M, Oshinsky A, Purt B, Shin SY, Thavikulwat AT, Lu Z, Chew EY. Deep Learning Automated Diagnosis and Quantitative Classification of Cataract Type and Severity. Ophthalmology 2022; 129:571-584. [PMID: 34990643 PMCID: PMC9038670 DOI: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To develop and evaluate deep learning models to perform automated diagnosis and quantitative classification of age-related cataract, including all three anatomical types, from anterior segment photographs. DESIGN Application of deep learning models to Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) dataset. PARTICIPANTS 18,999 photographs (6,333 triplets) from longitudinal follow-up of 1,137 eyes (576 AREDS participants). METHODS Deep learning models were trained to detect and quantify nuclear cataract (NS; scale 0.9-7.1) from 45-degree slit-lamp photographs and cortical (CLO; scale 0-100%) and posterior subcapsular (PSC; scale 0-100%) cataract from retroillumination photographs. Model performance was compared with that of 14 ophthalmologists and 24 medical students. The ground truth labels were from reading center grading. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Mean squared error (MSE). RESULTS On the full test set, mean MSE values for the deep learning models were: 0.23 (SD 0.01) for NS, 13.1 (SD 1.6) for CLO, and 16.6 (SD 2.4) for PSC. On a subset of the test set (substantially enriched for positive cases of CLO and PSC), for NS, mean MSE for the models was 0.23 (SD 0.02), compared to 0.98 (SD 0.23; p=0.000001) for the ophthalmologists, and 1.24 (SD 0.33; p=0.000005) for the medical students. For CLO, mean MSE values were 53.5 (SD 14.8), compared to 134.9 (SD 89.9; p=0.003) and 422.0 (SD 944.4; p=0.0007), respectively. For PSC, mean MSE values were 171.9 (SD 38.9), compared to 176.8 (SD 98.0; p=0.67) and 395.2 (SD 632.5; p=0.18), respectively. In external validation on the Singapore Malay Eye Study (sampled to reflect the distribution of cataract severity in AREDS), MSE was 1.27 for NS and 25.5 for PSC. CONCLUSIONS A deep learning framework was able to perform automated and quantitative classification of cataract severity for all three types of age-related cataract. For the two most common types (NS and CLO), the accuracy was significantly superior to that of ophthalmologists; for the least common type (PSC), the accuracy was similar. The framework may have wide potential applications in both clinical and research domains. In the future, such approaches may increase the accessibility of cataract assessment globally. The code and models are publicly available at https://XXX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiarnan D L Keenan
- Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Qingyu Chen
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Elvira Agrón
- Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Yih-Chung Tham
- Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore National Eye Centre, Singapore; Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| | | | - Xiaofeng Lei
- Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Yi Pin Ng
- Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Yong Liu
- Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore; Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Xinxing Xu
- Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore; Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Ching-Yu Cheng
- Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore National Eye Centre, Singapore; Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore; Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR, Singapore; Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Jost B Jonas
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany; Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel, Switzerland; Privatpraxis Prof Jonas und Dr Panda-Jonas, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sanjeeb Bhandari
- Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Geoffrey K Broadhead
- Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Marcus H Colyer
- Department of Ophthalmology, Madigan Army Medical Center, Tacoma, WA, USA; Department of Surgery, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jonathan Corsini
- Warfighter Eye Center, Malcolm Grow Medical Clinics and Surgery Center, Joint Base Andrews, MD, USA
| | - Chantal Cousineau-Krieger
- Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - William Gensheimer
- White River Junction Veterans Affairs Medical Center, White River Junction, VT, USA; Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth, NH, USA
| | - David Grasic
- Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Tania Lamba
- Washington DC Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Washington DC, USA
| | - M Teresa Magone
- Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Arnold Oshinsky
- Washington DC Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Washington DC, USA
| | - Boonkit Purt
- Department of Surgery, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Soo Y Shin
- Washington DC Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Washington DC, USA
| | - Alisa T Thavikulwat
- Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Zhiyong Lu
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Emily Y Chew
- Division of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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14
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Xu W, Jin L, Zhu PZ, He K, Yang WH, Wu MN. Implementation and Application of an Intelligent Pterygium Diagnosis System Based on Deep Learning. Front Psychol 2021; 12:759229. [PMID: 34744935 PMCID: PMC8569253 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.759229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: This study aims to implement and investigate the application of a special intelligent diagnostic system based on deep learning in the diagnosis of pterygium using anterior segment photographs. Methods: A total of 1,220 anterior segment photographs of normal eyes and pterygium patients were collected for training (using 750 images) and testing (using 470 images) to develop an intelligent pterygium diagnostic model. The images were classified into three categories by the experts and the intelligent pterygium diagnosis system: (i) the normal group, (ii) the observation group of pterygium, and (iii) the operation group of pterygium. The intelligent diagnostic results were compared with those of the expert diagnosis. Indicators including accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, kappa value, the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), as well as 95% confidence interval (CI) and F1-score were evaluated. Results: The accuracy rate of the intelligent diagnosis system on the 470 testing photographs was 94.68%; the diagnostic consistency was high; the kappa values of the three groups were all above 85%. Additionally, the AUC values approached 100% in group 1 and 95% in the other two groups. The best results generated from the proposed system for sensitivity, specificity, and F1-scores were 100, 99.64, and 99.74% in group 1; 90.06, 97.32, and 92.49% in group 2; and 92.73, 95.56, and 89.47% in group 3, respectively. Conclusion: The intelligent pterygium diagnosis system based on deep learning can not only judge the presence of pterygium but also classify the severity of pterygium. This study is expected to provide a new screening tool for pterygium and benefit patients from areas lacking medical resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xu
- Department of Optometry, Jinling Institute of Technology, Nanjing, China.,Nanjing Key Laboratory of Optometric Materials and Application Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Ling Jin
- Affiliated Eye Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Peng-Zhi Zhu
- Guangdong Medical Devices Quality Surveillance and Test Institute, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kai He
- School of Information Engineering, Huzhou University, Huzhou, China.,Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Smart Management & Application of Modern Agricultural Resources, Huzhou, China
| | - Wei-Hua Yang
- Affiliated Eye Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mao-Nian Wu
- School of Information Engineering, Huzhou University, Huzhou, China.,Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Smart Management & Application of Modern Agricultural Resources, Huzhou, China
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15
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Lens Opacities Classification System III-based artificial intelligence program for automatic cataract grading. J Cataract Refract Surg 2021; 48:528-534. [PMID: 34433780 DOI: 10.1097/j.jcrs.0000000000000790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To establish and validate an artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted automatic cataract grading program based on the Lens Opacities Classification System III (LOCSIII). SETTING Eye and Ear, Nose, and Throat (EENT) Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China. DESIGN AI training. METHODS Advanced deep-learning algorithms, including Faster R-CNN and ResNet, were applied to the localization and analysis of the region of interest. An internal dataset from the EENT Hospital of Fudan University and an external dataset from the Pujiang Eye Study were used for AI training, validation, and testing. The datasets were automatically labeled on the AI platform in terms of the capture mode and cataract grading based on the LOCSIII system. RESULTS The AI program showed reliable capture mode recognition, grading, and referral capability for nuclear and cortical cataract grading. In the internal and external datasets, 99.4% and 100% of automatic nuclear grading, respectively, had an absolute prediction error of ≤ 1.0, with a satisfactory referral capability (area under the curve [AUC]: 0.983 for the internal dataset; 0.977 for the external dataset). 75.0% (internal dataset) and 93.5% (external dataset) of the automatic cortical grades had an absolute prediction error of ≤ 1.0, with AUCs of 0.855 and 0.795 for referral, respectively. Good consistency was observed between automatic and manual grading when both nuclear and cortical cataracts were evaluated. However, automatic grading of posterior subcapsular cataracts was impractical. CONCLUSIONS The AI program proposed in this study shows robust grading and diagnostic performance for both nuclear and cortical cataracts, based on LOCSIII.
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16
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Ruamviboonsuk P, Chantra S, Seresirikachorn K, Ruamviboonsuk V, Sangroongruangsri S. Economic Evaluations of Artificial Intelligence in Ophthalmology. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila) 2021; 10:307-316. [PMID: 34261102 DOI: 10.1097/apo.0000000000000403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Artificial intelligence (AI) is expected to cause significant medical quality enhancements and cost-saving improvements in ophthalmology. Although there has been a rapid growth of studies on AI in the recent years, real-world adoption of AI is still rare. One reason may be because the data derived from economic evaluations of AI in health care, which policy makers used for adopting new technology, have been fragmented and scarce. Most data on economics of AI in ophthalmology are from diabetic retinopathy (DR) screening. Few studies classified costs of AI software, which has been considered as a medical device, into direct medical costs. These costs of AI are composed of initial and maintenance costs. The initial costs may include investment in research and development, and costs for validation of different datasets. Meanwhile, the maintenance costs include costs for algorithms upgrade and hardware maintenance in the long run. The cost of AI should be balanced between manufacturing price and reimbursements since it may pose significant challenges and barriers to providers. Evidence from cost-effectiveness analyses showed that AI, either standalone or used with humans, was more cost-effective than manual DR screening. Notably, economic evaluation of AI for DR screening can be used as a model for AI to other ophthalmic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paisan Ruamviboonsuk
- Department of Ophthalmology, Rajavithi Hospital, College of Medicine, Rangsit University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Somporn Chantra
- Department of Ophthalmology, Rajavithi Hospital, College of Medicine, Rangsit University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Kasem Seresirikachorn
- Department of Ophthalmology, Rajavithi Hospital, College of Medicine, Rangsit University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Varis Ruamviboonsuk
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Sermsiri Sangroongruangsri
- Social and Administrative Pharmacy Division, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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17
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Saeed AQ, Sheikh Abdullah SNH, Che-Hamzah J, Abdul Ghani AT. Accuracy of Using Generative Adversarial Networks for Glaucoma Detection During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis. J Med Internet Res 2021; 23:e27414. [PMID: 34236992 PMCID: PMC8493455 DOI: 10.2196/27414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Glaucoma leads to irreversible blindness. Globally, it is the second most common retinal disease that leads to blindness, slightly less common than cataracts. Therefore, there is a great need to avoid the silent growth of this disease using recently developed generative adversarial networks (GANs). Objective This paper aims to introduce a GAN technology for the diagnosis of eye disorders, particularly glaucoma. This paper illustrates deep adversarial learning as a potential diagnostic tool and the challenges involved in its implementation. This study describes and analyzes many of the pitfalls and problems that researchers will need to overcome to implement this kind of technology. Methods To organize this review comprehensively, articles and reviews were collected using the following keywords: (“Glaucoma,” “optic disc,” “blood vessels”) and (“receptive field,” “loss function,” “GAN,” “Generative Adversarial Network,” “Deep learning,” “CNN,” “convolutional neural network” OR encoder). The records were identified from 5 highly reputed databases: IEEE Xplore, Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed. These libraries broadly cover the technical and medical literature. Publications within the last 5 years, specifically 2015-2020, were included because the target GAN technique was invented only in 2014 and the publishing date of the collected papers was not earlier than 2016. Duplicate records were removed, and irrelevant titles and abstracts were excluded. In addition, we excluded papers that used optical coherence tomography and visual field images, except for those with 2D images. A large-scale systematic analysis was performed, and then a summarized taxonomy was generated. Furthermore, the results of the collected articles were summarized and a visual representation of the results was presented on a T-shaped matrix diagram. This study was conducted between March 2020 and November 2020. Results We found 59 articles after conducting a comprehensive survey of the literature. Among the 59 articles, 30 present actual attempts to synthesize images and provide accurate segmentation/classification using single/multiple landmarks or share certain experiences. The other 29 articles discuss the recent advances in GANs, do practical experiments, and contain analytical studies of retinal disease. Conclusions Recent deep learning techniques, namely GANs, have shown encouraging performance in retinal disease detection. Although this methodology involves an extensive computing budget and optimization process, it saturates the greedy nature of deep learning techniques by synthesizing images and solves major medical issues. This paper contributes to this research field by offering a thorough analysis of existing works, highlighting current limitations, and suggesting alternatives to support other researchers and participants in further improving and strengthening future work. Finally, new directions for this research have been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Q Saeed
- Faculty of Information Science & Technology (FTSM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), UKM, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia, Selangor, MY.,Computer Center, Northern Technical University, Ninevah, IQ
| | - Siti Norul Huda Sheikh Abdullah
- Faculty of Information Science & Technology (FTSM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), UKM, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia, Selangor, MY
| | - Jemaima Che-Hamzah
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, MY
| | - Ahmad Tarmizi Abdul Ghani
- Faculty of Information Science & Technology (FTSM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), UKM, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia, Selangor, MY
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18
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Rampat R, Deshmukh R, Chen X, Ting DSW, Said DG, Dua HS, Ting DSJ. Artificial Intelligence in Cornea, Refractive Surgery, and Cataract: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Future Directions. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila) 2021; 10:268-281. [PMID: 34224467 PMCID: PMC7611495 DOI: 10.1097/apo.0000000000000394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Corneal diseases, uncorrected refractive errors, and cataract represent the major causes of blindness globally. The number of refractive surgeries, either cornea- or lens-based, is also on the rise as the demand for perfect vision continues to increase. With the recent advancement and potential promises of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies demonstrated in the realm of ophthalmology, particularly retinal diseases and glaucoma, AI researchers and clinicians are now channeling their focus toward the less explored ophthalmic areas related to the anterior segment of the eye. Conditions that rely on anterior segment imaging modalities, including slit-lamp photography, anterior segment optical coherence tomography, corneal tomography, in vivo confocal microscopy and/or optical biometers, are the most commonly explored areas. These include infectious keratitis, keratoconus, corneal grafts, ocular surface pathologies, preoperative screening before refractive surgery, intraocular lens calculation, and automated refraction, among others. In this review, we aimed to provide a comprehensive update on the utilization of AI in anterior segment diseases, with particular emphasis on the recent advancement in the past few years. In addition, we demystify some of the basic principles and terminologies related to AI, particularly machine learning and deep learning, to help improve the understanding, research and clinical implementation of these AI technologies among the ophthalmologists and vision scientists. As we march toward the era of digital health, guidelines such as CONSORT-AI, SPIRIT-AI, and STARD-AI will play crucial roles in guiding and standardizing the conduct and reporting of AI-related trials, ultimately promoting their potential for clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rashmi Deshmukh
- Department of Ophthalmology, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK
| | - Xin Chen
- School of Computer Science, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Daniel S. W. Ting
- Duke-NUS Medical School, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Singapore National Eye Centre / Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore
| | - Dalia G. Said
- Academic Ophthalmology, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Department of Ophthalmology, Queen’s Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | - Harminder S. Dua
- Academic Ophthalmology, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Department of Ophthalmology, Queen’s Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | - Darren S. J. Ting
- Singapore National Eye Centre / Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore
- Academic Ophthalmology, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Department of Ophthalmology, Queen’s Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK
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19
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Jayadev C, Shetty R. Artificial intelligence in laser refractive surgery - Potential and promise! Indian J Ophthalmol 2020; 68:2650-2651. [PMID: 33229635 PMCID: PMC7856980 DOI: 10.4103/ijo.ijo_3304_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chaitra Jayadev
- Narayana Nethralaya Eye Institute, 121/C, Chord Road, Rajajinagar, Bangalore - 560 010, Karnataka, India
| | - Rohit Shetty
- Narayana Nethralaya Eye Institute, 121/C, Chord Road, Rajajinagar, Bangalore - 560 010, Karnataka, India
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