1
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Xia W, Singh N, Goel S, Shi S. Molecular Imaging of Innate Immunity and Immunotherapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2023; 198:114865. [PMID: 37182699 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2023.114865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The innate immune system plays a key role as the first line of defense in various human diseases including cancer, cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. In contrast to tissue biopsies and blood biopsies, in vivo imaging of the innate immune system can provide whole body measurements of immune cell location and function and changes in response to disease progression and therapy. Rationally developed molecular imaging strategies can be used in evaluating the status and spatio-temporal distributions of the innate immune cells in near real-time, mapping the biodistribution of novel innate immunotherapies, monitoring their efficacy and potential toxicities, and eventually for stratifying patients that are likely to benefit from these immunotherapies. In this review, we will highlight the current state-of-the-art in noninvasive imaging techniques for preclinical imaging of the innate immune system particularly focusing on cell trafficking, biodistribution, as well as pharmacokinetics and dynamics of promising immunotherapies in cancer and other diseases; discuss the unmet needs and current challenges in integrating imaging modalities and immunology and suggest potential solutions to overcome these barriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxi Xia
- Department of Molecular Pharmaceutics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States
| | - Neetu Singh
- Department of Molecular Pharmaceutics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States
| | - Shreya Goel
- Department of Molecular Pharmaceutics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States; Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States
| | - Sixiang Shi
- Department of Molecular Pharmaceutics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States; Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States.
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2
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Wang Z, Mei L, Yang X, Jiang T, Sun T, Su Y, Wu Y, Ji Y. Near-infrared fluorophores methylene blue for targeted imaging of the stomach in intraoperative navigation. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1172073. [PMID: 37122852 PMCID: PMC10133495 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1172073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging-guided surgery is increasingly concerned in gastrointestinal surgery because it can potentially improve clinical outcomes. This new technique can provide intraoperative image guidance for surgical margin evaluation and help surgeons examine residual lesions and small tumors during surgery. NIR fluorophores methylene blue (MB) is a promising fluorescent probe because of its safety and intraoperative imaging in the clinic. However, whether MB possesses the potential to perform intraoperative navigation of the stomach and gastric tumors needs to be further explored. Therefore, the current study mainly validated MB's usefulness in animal models' intraoperative imaging of stomach and gastric tumors. NIR fluorophores MB can exhibit specific uptake by the gastric epithelial cells and cancer cells. It is primarily found that MB can directly target the stomach in mice. Interestingly, MB was applied for the NIR imaging of gastric cancer cell xenografts, suggesting that MB cannot specifically target subcutaneous and orthotopic gastric tumors in xenograft models. Thus, it can be concluded that MB has no inherent specificity for gastric tumors but specificity for gastric tissues. Apparently, MB-positive and negative NIR imaging are meaningful in targeting gastric tissues and tumors. MB is expected to represent a helpful NIR agent to secure precise resection margins during the gastrectomy and resection of gastric tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhidong Wang
- Department of General Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Lin Mei
- Scientific Research Center and Precision Medical Institute, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Xiao Yang
- Scientific Research Center and Precision Medical Institute, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Tiantian Jiang
- Department of General Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Tingkai Sun
- Department of General Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yuanhao Su
- Department of General Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Youshen Wu
- School of Chemistry, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yuanyuan Ji
- Scientific Research Center and Precision Medical Institute, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
- *Correspondence: Yuanyuan Ji,
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3
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Wang Z, Yang X, Mei L, Jiang T, Sun T, Chen H, Wu Y, Ji Y. Indocyanine green for targeted imaging of the gall bladder and fluorescence navigation. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2022; 15:e202200142. [PMID: 35904773 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202200142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Researchers nowadays have devoted extra attention to the different biomedical applications of indocyanine green (ICG), a US Food and Drug Administration-approved fluorescent compound in the fields such as drug delivery, medical imaging and disease diagnosis. In addition, hepatic function evaluation could be conducted by using ICG before surgical procedures and angiographic assessment of blood. Therefore, ICG will be expected to be excellent imaging and targeting agent in various preclinical and clinical model systems. However, whether ICG possesses the potential for the gall bladder's intraoperative imaging guidance needs to be further explored in vivo animal experiments. Herein, near-infrared fluorophores ICG can display the specific uptake by the gall bladder cells and tissues. The dynamic process of biodistribution and the clearance of ICG in vivo in mice are clearly shown in real-time live-body imaging. Furthermore, ICG was rapidly excreted into the bile and lately biodistributed to the stomach after treatment in mice. Meanwhile, the signal-to-background ratio of the gall bladder demonstrated a tremendously higher level compared to other organs (stomach, heart, liver, lung, pancreas, spleen, intestine and duodenum). In conclusion, fluorescence navigation using ICG fluorescence imaging will provide good visualization and detection of the target lesions (gall bladder) in clinics such as diagnostic medical imaging and intraoperative navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhidong Wang
- Department of General Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiao Yang
- Scientific Research Center and Precision Medical Institute, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Lin Mei
- Scientific Research Center and Precision Medical Institute, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Tiantian Jiang
- Department of General Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Tingkai Sun
- Department of General Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - HaiYan Chen
- Scientific Research Center and Precision Medical Institute, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - YouShen Wu
- School of Chemistry, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yuanyuan Ji
- Scientific Research Center and Precision Medical Institute, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
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4
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Yin X, Cheng Y, Feng Y, Stiles WR, Park SH, Kang H, Choi HS. Phototheranostics for multifunctional treatment of cancer with fluorescence imaging. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 189:114483. [PMID: 35944585 PMCID: PMC9860309 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Phototheranostics stem from the recent advances in nanomedicines and bioimaging to diagnose and treat human diseases. Since tumors' diversity, heterogeneity, and instability limit the clinical application of traditional diagnostics and therapeutics, phototheranostics, which combine light-induced therapeutic and diagnostic modalities in a single platform, have been widely investigated. Numerous efforts have been made to develop phototheranostics for efficient light-induced antitumor therapeutics with minimal side effects. Herein, we review the fundamentals of phototheranostic nanomedicines with their biomedical applications. Furthermore, the progress of near-infrared fluorescence imaging and cancer treatments, including photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy, along with chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and gene therapy, are summarized. This review also discusses the opportunities and challenges associated with the clinical translation of phototheranostics in pan-cancer research. Phototheranostics can pave the way for future research, improve the quality of life, and prolong cancer patients' survival times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoran Yin
- Department of Oncology, The Second Affiliate Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710004, China,Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Yifan Cheng
- Department of Oncology, The Second Affiliate Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710004, China
| | - Yan Feng
- Department of Oncology, The Second Affiliate Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710004, China
| | - Wesley R. Stiles
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Seung Hun Park
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Homan Kang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA,Corresponding authors at: 149 13th Street, Boston, MA 02129, USA., (H. Kang), (H.S. Choi)
| | - Hak Soo Choi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA,Corresponding authors at: 149 13th Street, Boston, MA 02129, USA., (H. Kang), (H.S. Choi)
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5
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Fukuda T, Yokomizo S, Casa S, Monaco H, Manganiello S, Wang H, Lv X, Ulumben AD, Yang C, Kang MW, Inoue K, Fukushi M, Sumi T, Wang C, Kang H, Bao K, Henary M, Kashiwagi S, Soo Choi H. Fast and Durable Intraoperative Near-infrared Imaging of Ovarian Cancer Using Ultrabright Squaraine Fluorophores. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202117330. [PMID: 35150468 PMCID: PMC9007913 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202117330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The residual tumor after surgery is the most significant prognostic factor of patients with epithelial ovarian cancer. Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence-guided surgery is actively utilized for tumor localization and complete resection during surgery. However, currently available contrast-enhancing agents display low on-target binding, unfavorable pharmacokinetics, and toxicity, thus not ideal for clinical use. Here we report ultrabright and stable squaraine fluorophores with optimal pharmacokinetics by introducing an asymmetric molecular conformation and surface charges for rapid transporter-mediated cellular uptake. Among the tested, OCTL14 shows low serum binding and rapid distribution into cancer tissue via organic cation transporters (OCTs). Additionally, the charged squaraine fluorophores are retained in lysosomes, providing durable intraoperative imaging in a preclinical murine model of ovarian cancer up to 24 h post-injection. OCTL14 represents a significant departure from the current bioconjugation approach of using a non-targeted fluorophore and would provide surgeons with an indispensable tool to achieve optimal resection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Fukuda
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-4-3, Asahimachi, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
| | - Shinya Yokomizo
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 7-2-10 Higashi-Ogu, Arakawa, Tokyo, 116-8551, Japan
| | - Stefanie Casa
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Hailey Monaco
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Sophia Manganiello
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Haoran Wang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Xiangmin Lv
- Vincent Center for Reproductive Biology, Vincent Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Amy Daniel Ulumben
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Chengeng Yang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Min-Woong Kang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, 301-721, South Korea
| | - Kazumasa Inoue
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 7-2-10 Higashi-Ogu, Arakawa, Tokyo, 116-8551, Japan
| | - Masahiro Fukushi
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 7-2-10 Higashi-Ogu, Arakawa, Tokyo, 116-8551, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Sumi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-4-3, Asahimachi, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
| | - Cheng Wang
- Vincent Center for Reproductive Biology, Vincent Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Homan Kang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Kai Bao
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Maged Henary
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
- Center for Diagnostics and Therapeutics, 145 Piedmont Avenue S.E., Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Satoshi Kashiwagi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Hak Soo Choi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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6
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Li X, Wang R, Zhang Y, Han S, Gan Y, Liang Q, Ma X, Rong P, Wang W, Li W. Molecular imaging of tumor-associated macrophages in cancer immunotherapy. Ther Adv Med Oncol 2022; 14:17588359221076194. [PMID: 35251314 PMCID: PMC8891912 DOI: 10.1177/17588359221076194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), the most abundant inflammatory cell group in the tumor microenvironment, play an essential role in tumor immune regulation. The infiltration degree of TAMs in the tumor microenvironment is closely related to tumor growth and metastasis, and TAMs have become a promising target in tumor immunotherapy. Molecular imaging is a new interdisciplinary subject that combines medical imaging technology with molecular biology, nuclear medicine, radiation medicine, and computer science. The latest progress in molecular imaging allows the biological processes of cells to be visualized in vivo, which makes it possible to better understand the density and distribution of macrophages in the tumor microenvironment. This review mainly discusses the application of targeting TAM in tumor immunotherapy and the imaging characteristics and progress of targeting TAM molecular probes using various imaging techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Li
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
- Cell Transplantation and Gene Therapy Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ruike Wang
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
- Cell Transplantation and Gene Therapy Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yangnan Zhang
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
- Cell Transplantation and Gene Therapy Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shuangze Han
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
- Cell Transplantation and Gene Therapy Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yu Gan
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
- Cell Transplantation and Gene Therapy Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qi Liang
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
- Cell Transplantation and Gene Therapy Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoqian Ma
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
- Cell Transplantation and Gene Therapy Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Pengfei Rong
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, People’s Republic of China
- Cell Transplantation and Gene Therapy Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, People’s Republic of China
- Cell Transplantation and Gene Therapy Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, People’s Republic of China
- Cell Transplantation and Gene Therapy Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
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7
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Fukuda T, Yokomizo S, Casa S, Monaco H, Manganiello S, Wang H, Lv X, Ulumben AD, Yang C, Kang MW, Inoue K, Fukushi M, Sumi T, Wang C, Kang H, Bao K, Henary M, Kashiwagi S, Choi HS. Fast and Durable Intraoperative Near‐infrared Imaging of Ovarian Cancer Using Ultrabright Squaraine Fluorophores. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202117330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hailey Monaco
- Massachusetts General Hospital radiology UNITED STATES
| | | | - Haoran Wang
- Massachusetts General Hospital radiology UNITED STATES
| | - Xiangmin Lv
- Massachusetts General Hospital Obstetrics and Gynecology UNITED STATES
| | | | - Chengeng Yang
- Massachusetts General Hospital radiology UNITED STATES
| | | | - Kazumasa Inoue
- Tokyo Metropolitan University - Arakawa Campus: Tokyo Toritsu Daigaku - Arakawa Campus Radiation Science JAPAN
| | - Masahiro Fukushi
- Tokyo Metropolitan University - Arakawa Campus: Tokyo Toritsu Daigaku - Arakawa Campus Radiation Science JAPAN
| | - Toshiyuki Sumi
- Osaka City University: Osaka Shiritsu Daigaku Obstetrics and Gynecology JAPAN
| | - Cheng Wang
- Massachusetts General Hospital Obstetrics and Gynecology UNITED STATES
| | - Homan Kang
- Massachusetts General Hospital radiology UNITED STATES
| | - Kai Bao
- Massachusetts General Hospital radiology UNITED STATES
| | - Maged Henary
- Georgia State University Chemistry UNITED STATES
| | - Satoshi Kashiwagi
- Massachusetts General Hospital Radiology 149 13th Street 02129 Charlestown UNITED STATES
| | - Hak Soo Choi
- Massachusetts General Hospital Radiology 149 13th Street 02129 Boston UNITED STATES
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8
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Wu X, Daniel Ulumben A, Long S, Katagiri W, Wilks MQ, Yuan H, Cortese B, Yang C, Kashiwagi S, Choi HS, Normandin MD, El Fakhri G, Zaman RT. Near-Infrared Fluorescence Imaging of Carotid Plaques in an Atherosclerotic Murine Model. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1753. [PMID: 34944397 PMCID: PMC8698491 DOI: 10.3390/biom11121753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful imaging of atherosclerosis, one of the leading global causes of death, is crucial for diagnosis and intervention. Near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging has been widely adopted along with multimodal/hybrid imaging systems for plaque detection. We evaluate two macrophage-targeting fluorescent tracers for NIRF imaging (TLR4-ZW800-1C and Feraheme-Alexa Fluor 750) in an atherosclerotic murine cohort, where the left carotid artery (LCA) is ligated to cause stenosis, and the right carotid artery (RCA) is used as a control. Imaging performed on dissected tissues revealed that both tracers had high uptake in the diseased vessel compared to the control, which was readily visible even at short exposure times. In addition, ZW800-1C's renal clearance ability and Feraheme's FDA approval puts these two tracers in line with other NIRF tracers such as ICG. Continued investigation with these tracers using intravascular NIRF imaging and larger animal models is warranted for clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotian Wu
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Amy Daniel Ulumben
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Steven Long
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA;
| | - Wataru Katagiri
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Moses Q. Wilks
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Hushan Yuan
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Brian Cortese
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Chengeng Yang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Satoshi Kashiwagi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Hak Soo Choi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Marc D. Normandin
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Georges El Fakhri
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
| | - Raiyan T. Zaman
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (A.D.U.); (W.K.); (M.Q.W.); (H.Y.); (B.C.); (C.Y.); (S.K.); (H.S.C.); (M.D.N.); (G.E.F.); (R.T.Z.)
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9
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Nandi D, Farid NSS, Karuppiah HAR, Kulkarni A. Imaging Approaches to Monitor Inflammasome Activation. J Mol Biol 2021; 434:167251. [PMID: 34537231 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2021.167251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Inflammasomes are a critical component of innate immune response which plays an important role in the pathogenesis of various chronic and acute inflammatory disease conditions. An inflammasome complex consists of a multimeric protein assembly triggered by any form of pathogenic or sterile insult, resulting in caspase-1 activation. This active enzyme is further known to activate downstream pro-inflammatory cytokines along with a pore-forming protein, eventually leading to a lytic cell death called pyroptosis. Understanding the spatiotemporal kinetics of essential inflammasome components provides a better interpretation of the complex signaling underlying inflammation during several disease pathologies. This can be attained via in-vitro and in-vivo imaging platforms, which not only provide a basic understanding of molecular signaling but are also crucial to develop and screen targeted therapeutics. To date, numerous studies have reported platforms to image different signaling components participating in inflammasome activation. Here, we review several elements of inflammasome signaling, a common molecular mechanism combining these elements and their respective imaging tools. We anticipate that future needs will include developing new inflammasome imaging systems that can be utilized as clinical tools for diagnostics and monitoring treatment responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipika Nandi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA; Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA. https://twitter.com/dipikanandi24
| | - Noorul Shaheen Sheikh Farid
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA. https://twitter.com/Shaheen30n
| | - Hayat Anu Ranjani Karuppiah
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA. https://twitter.com/AnuHayat
| | - Ashish Kulkarni
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA; Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA; Center for Bioactive Delivery, Institute for Applied Life Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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10
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Park MH, Jo G, Lee BY, Kim EJ, Hyun H. Rapid Tumor Targeting of Renal-Clearable ZW800-1 Conjugate for Efficient Photothermal Cancer Therapy. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9091151. [PMID: 34572335 PMCID: PMC8470137 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9091151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The combination of near-infrared (NIR) fluorophores and photothermal therapy (PTT) provides a new opportunity for safe and effective cancer treatment. However, the precise molecular design of functional NIR fluorophores with desired properties, such as high tumor targetability and low nonspecific uptake, remains challenging. In this study, a renal-clearable NIR fluorophore conjugate with high tumor targetability was developed for efficient photothermal cancer therapy. The isoniazid (INH)–ZW800-1 conjugate (INH–ZW) was synthesized by conjugating an antibiotic drug, INH, with a well-known zwitterionic NIR fluorophore, ZW800-1, to improve in vivo performance and fluorescence-guided cancer phototherapy. INH–ZW not only showed rapid tumor accumulation without nonspecific tissue/organ uptake within 1 h after the injection but also generated thermal energy to induce cancer cell death under NIR laser irradiation. Compared with previously reported ZW800-1 conjugates, INH–ZW preserved the ideal biodistribution of ZW800-1 and facilitated improved tumor targeting and PTT. Together, these results demonstrate that the INH–ZW conjugate has great potential to serve as an effective PTT agent capable of rapid tumor targeting and high renal clearance, with excellent photothermal efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Ho Park
- Department of Surgery, Chonnam National University Medical School and Hwasun Hospital, Hwasun 58128, Korea; (M.H.P.); (E.J.K.)
| | - Gayoung Jo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Korea; (G.J.); (B.Y.L.)
| | - Bo Young Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Korea; (G.J.); (B.Y.L.)
- BioMedical Sciences Graduate Program (BMSGP), Chonnam National University, Hwasun 58128, Korea
| | - Eun Jeong Kim
- Department of Surgery, Chonnam National University Medical School and Hwasun Hospital, Hwasun 58128, Korea; (M.H.P.); (E.J.K.)
| | - Hoon Hyun
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Korea; (G.J.); (B.Y.L.)
- BioMedical Sciences Graduate Program (BMSGP), Chonnam National University, Hwasun 58128, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-613-792-652
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11
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Yang C, Wang H, Yokomizo S, Hickey M, Chang H, Kang H, Fukuda T, Song MY, Lee SY, Park JW, Bao K, Choi HS. ZW800‐PEG: A Renal Clearable Zwitterionic Near‐Infrared Fluorophore for Potential Clinical Translation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202102640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chengeng Yang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging Department of Radiology Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School Boston MA 02129 USA
| | - Haoran Wang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging Department of Radiology Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School Boston MA 02129 USA
- Wuya College of Innovation Shenyang Pharmaceutical University Shenyang 110016 P. R. China
| | - Shinya Yokomizo
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging Department of Radiology Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School Boston MA 02129 USA
| | - Morgan Hickey
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging Department of Radiology Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School Boston MA 02129 USA
| | - Hyejin Chang
- Division of Science Education Kangwon National University Chuncheon 24341 S. Korea
| | - Homan Kang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging Department of Radiology Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School Boston MA 02129 USA
| | - Takeshi Fukuda
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging Department of Radiology Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School Boston MA 02129 USA
| | | | | | | | - Kai Bao
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging Department of Radiology Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School Boston MA 02129 USA
| | - Hak Soo Choi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging Department of Radiology Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School Boston MA 02129 USA
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12
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Yang C, Wang H, Yokomizo S, Hickey M, Chang H, Kang H, Fukuda T, Song MY, Lee SY, Park JW, Bao K, Choi HS. ZW800-PEG: A Renal Clearable Zwitterionic Near-Infrared Fluorophore for Potential Clinical Translation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:13847-13852. [PMID: 33857346 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202102640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging has advanced medical imaging and image-guided interventions during the past three decades. Despite tremendous advances in imaging devices, surprisingly only a few dyes are currently available in the clinic. Previous fluorophores, ZW800-1A and ZW800-1C, significantly improved the poor performance of the FDA-approved indocyanine green. However, ZW800-1A is not stable in serum and ZW800-1C induces severe stacking in aqueous media. To solve such dilemmas, ZW800-PEG was designed by introducing a flexible yet stable thiol PEG linker. ZW800-PEG shows high solubility in both aqueous and organic solvents, thus improving renal clearance with minimal binding to serum proteins during systemic circulation. The sulfide group on the meso position of the heptamethine core improves serum stability and physicochemical properties including the maximum emission wavelength shift to 800 nm, enabling the use of ZW800-PEG for image-guided interventions and augmenting photothermal therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengeng Yang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Haoran Wang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA.,Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, P. R. China
| | - Shinya Yokomizo
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Morgan Hickey
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Hyejin Chang
- Division of Science Education, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, S. Korea
| | - Homan Kang
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Takeshi Fukuda
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | | | | | | | - Kai Bao
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Hak Soo Choi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
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13
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Ji Y, Jones C, Baek Y, Park GK, Kashiwagi S, Choi HS. Near-infrared fluorescence imaging in immunotherapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2020; 167:121-134. [PMID: 32579891 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2020.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Near-infrared (NIR) light possesses many suitable optophysical properties for medical imaging including low autofluorescence, deep tissue penetration, and minimal light scattering, which together allow for high-resolution imaging of biological tissue. NIR imaging has proven to be a noninvasive and effective real-time imaging methodology that provides a high signal-to-background ratio compared to other potential optical imaging modalities. In response to this, the use of NIR imaging has been extensively explored in the field of immunotherapy. To date, NIR fluorescence imaging has successfully offered reliable monitoring of the localization, dynamics, and function of immune responses, which are vital in assessing not only the efficacy but also the safety of treatments to design immunotherapies optimally. This review aims to provide an overview of the current research on NIR imaging of the immune response. We expect that the use of NIR imaging will expand further in response to the recent success in cancer immunotherapy. We will also offer our insights on how this technology will meet rapidly growing expectations in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Ji
- Scientific Research Centre, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, Shaanxi, China; Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Catherine Jones
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Yoonji Baek
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - G Kate Park
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Satoshi Kashiwagi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | - Hak Soo Choi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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14
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Li DH, Schreiber CL, Smith BD. Sterically Shielded Heptamethine Cyanine Dyes for Bioconjugation and High Performance Near-Infrared Fluorescence Imaging. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:12154-12161. [PMID: 32324959 PMCID: PMC7473488 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202004449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The near-infrared window of fluorescent heptamethine cyanine dyes greatly facilitates biological imaging because there is deep penetration of the light and negligible background fluorescence. However, dye instability, aggregation, and poor pharmacokinetics are current drawbacks that limit performance and the scope of possible applications. All these limitations are simultaneously overcome with a new molecular design strategy that produces a charge balanced and sterically shielded fluorochrome. The key design feature is a meso-aryl group that simultaneously projects two shielding arms directly over each face of a linear heptamethine polyene. Cell and mouse imaging experiments compared a shielded heptamethine cyanine dye (and several peptide and antibody bioconjugates) to benchmark heptamethine dyes and found that the shielded systems possess an unsurpassed combination of photophysical, physiochemical, and biodistribution properties that greatly enhance bioimaging performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Hao Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, 251 Nieuwland Science Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Cynthia L. Schreiber
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, 251 Nieuwland Science Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Bradley D. Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, 251 Nieuwland Science Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
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15
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Ju HJ, Park M, Park JH, Shin GR, Choi HS, Suh MW, Kim MS. In Vivo Imaging of Click-Crosslinked Hydrogel Depots Following Intratympanic Injection. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13143070. [PMID: 32660032 PMCID: PMC7412526 DOI: 10.3390/ma13143070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we developed injectable intratympanic hyaluronic acid (HA) depots for the treatment of hearing loss. We prepared an injectable click-crosslinking formulation by modifying HA with tetrazine (HA-TET) and trans-cyclooctene (HA-TCO), which crosslinked to form an HA depot (Cx-HA). Preparation of the click-crosslinking HA formulation was facile, and Cx-HA depot formation was reproducible. Additionally, the Cx-HA hydrogel was significantly stiffer than HA hydrogel. To monitor the degradation pattern of hydrogels, we mixed a zwitterionic near-infrared (NIR) fluorophore (e.g., ZW800-1C) in the click-crosslinking HA formulation. Then, HA-TET and HA-TCO solutions containing ZW800-1C were loaded separately into the compartments of a dual-barrel syringe for intratympanic injection. The Cx-HA depots formed quickly, and an extended residence time in the tympanic cavity was confirmed by performing NIR fluorescence imaging. We have successfully prepared an injectable click-crosslinking HA formulation that has promise as an intratympanic drug depot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeon Jin Ju
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, Suwon 443-749, Korea; (H.J.J.); (J.H.P.); (G.R.S.)
| | - Mina Park
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Seoul Medical Center, Seoul 05505, Korea;
| | - Ji Hoon Park
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, Suwon 443-749, Korea; (H.J.J.); (J.H.P.); (G.R.S.)
| | - Gi Ru Shin
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, Suwon 443-749, Korea; (H.J.J.); (J.H.P.); (G.R.S.)
| | - Hak Soo Choi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Correspondence: (H.S.C.); (M.-W.S.); (M.S.K.); Tel.: +1-617-726-5784 (H.S.C.); +82-2-2072-3649 (M.-W.S.); +82-31-219-2608 (M.S.K.); Fax: +1-617-643-2604 (H.S.C.); +82-2-745-2387 (M.-W.S.); +82-31-219-3931 (M.S.K.)
| | - Myung-Whan Suh
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Seoul Medical Center, Seoul 05505, Korea;
- Correspondence: (H.S.C.); (M.-W.S.); (M.S.K.); Tel.: +1-617-726-5784 (H.S.C.); +82-2-2072-3649 (M.-W.S.); +82-31-219-2608 (M.S.K.); Fax: +1-617-643-2604 (H.S.C.); +82-2-745-2387 (M.-W.S.); +82-31-219-3931 (M.S.K.)
| | - Moon Suk Kim
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, Suwon 443-749, Korea; (H.J.J.); (J.H.P.); (G.R.S.)
- Correspondence: (H.S.C.); (M.-W.S.); (M.S.K.); Tel.: +1-617-726-5784 (H.S.C.); +82-2-2072-3649 (M.-W.S.); +82-31-219-2608 (M.S.K.); Fax: +1-617-643-2604 (H.S.C.); +82-2-745-2387 (M.-W.S.); +82-31-219-3931 (M.S.K.)
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16
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Li D, Schreiber CL, Smith BD. Sterically Shielded Heptamethine Cyanine Dyes for Bioconjugation and High Performance Near‐Infrared Fluorescence Imaging. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202004449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dong‐Hao Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Notre Dame 251 Nieuwland Science Hall Notre Dame IN 46556 USA
| | - Cynthia L. Schreiber
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Notre Dame 251 Nieuwland Science Hall Notre Dame IN 46556 USA
| | - Bradley D. Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Notre Dame 251 Nieuwland Science Hall Notre Dame IN 46556 USA
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