Effect of plane of arm elevation on glenohumeral kinematics: a normative biplane fluoroscopy study

Personalizing the shoulder rhythm in a computational upper body model improves kinematic tracking in high range-of-motion arm movements

Musculoskeletal models of the shoulder are needed to understand the mechanics of overhead motions. Existing models implementing the shoulder rhythm are generic and might not accurately represent an individual's scapular kinematics. We introduce a method to personalize the shoulder rhythm of a computational model of the upper body that defines the orientations of the clavicle and scapula based on glenohumeral joint angles. During five static calibration poses, we palpate and measure the orientation of the scapula. We explore the importance of representing shoulder elevation by introducing clavicle elevation as a degree of freedom that is independent of the glenohumeral angles. For ten subjects, we record the five calibration poses, ten additional static poses, and dynamic arm raises covering the participants' full range of motion in each body plane using optical motion capture. We examine the data using a dynamically-constrained inverse kinematics analysis. Shoulder rhythm personalization, independent clavicle elevation, and both in combination reduce the average upper body marker tracking error compared to the generic model in the static poses (26 mm to 17-20 mm) and in the dynamic trials (22 mm to 14-17 mm). Only personalization reduces the average scapula marker error (51 mm to 36-38 mm) and scapula axis-angle error (15° to 10°) compared with the palpated ground truth measurements in the static poses, and in the dynamic trials at instances that best match the static poses (53 mm to 37-40 mm, 15° to 9°). Our results show that personalizing upper body models improves kinematic tracking. We provide our experimental data, model, and methods to allow researchers to reproduce and build upon our results.

Severity of rotator cuff disorders and additional load affect fluoroscopy-based shoulder kinematics during arm abduction

BACKGROUND

Rotator cuff disorders, whether symptomatic or asymptomatic, may result in abnormal shoulder kinematics (scapular rotation and glenohumeral translation). This study aimed to investigate the effect of rotator cuff tears on in vivo shoulder kinematics during a 30° loaded abduction test using single-plane fluoroscopy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In total, 25 younger controls, 25 older controls and 25 patients with unilateral symptomatic rotator cuff tears participated in this study. Both shoulders of each participant were analysed and grouped on the basis of magnetic resonance imaging into healthy, rotator cuff tendinopathy, asymptomatic and symptomatic rotator cuff tears. All participants performed a bilateral 30° arm abduction and adduction movement in the scapular plane with handheld weights (0, 2 and 4 kg) during fluoroscopy acquisition. The range of upward-downward scapular rotation and superior-inferior glenohumeral translation were measured and analysed during abduction and adduction using a linear mixed model (loads, shoulder types) with random effects (shoulder ID).

RESULTS

Scapular rotation was greater in shoulders with rotator cuff tendinopathy and asymptomatic rotator cuff tears than in healthy shoulders. Additional load increased upward during abduction and downward during adduction scapular rotation (P < 0.001 in all groups but rotator cuff tendinopathy). In healthy shoulders, upward scapular rotation during 30° abduction increased from 2.3° with 0-kg load to 4.1° with 4-kg load and on shoulders with symptomatic rotator cuff tears from 3.6° with 0-kg load to 6.5° with 4-kg load. Glenohumeral translation was influenced by the handheld weights only in shoulders with rotator cuff tendinopathy (P ≤ 0.020). Overall, superior glenohumeral translation during 30° abduction was approximately 1.0 mm with all loads.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of glenohumeral translation comparable to control but greater scapular rotations during 30° abduction in the scapular plane in rotator cuff tears indicate that the scapula compensates for rotator cuff deficiency by rotating. Further analysis of load-dependent joint stability is needed to better understand glenohumeral and scapula motion.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 2.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Ethical approval was obtained from the regional ethics committee (Ethics Committee Northwest Switzerland EKNZ 2021-00182), and the study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov on 29 March 2021 (trial registration number NCT04819724, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04819724 ).

Fully automatic algorithm for detecting and tracking anatomical shoulder landmarks on fluoroscopy images with artificial intelligence

OBJECTIVE

Patients with rotator cuff tears present often with glenohumeral joint instability. Assessing anatomic angles and shoulder kinematics from fluoroscopy requires labelling of specific landmarks in each image. This study aimed to develop an artificial intelligence model for automatic landmark detection from fluoroscopic images for motion tracking of the scapula and humeral head.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fluoroscopic images were acquired for both shoulders of 25 participants (N = 12 patients with unilateral rotator cuff tear, 6 men, mean (standard deviation) age: 63.7 ± 9.7 years; 13 asymptomatic subjects, 7 men, 58.2 ± 8.9 years) during a 30° arm abduction and adduction movement in the scapular plane with and without handheld weights of 2 and 4 kg. A 3D full-resolution convolutional neural network (nnU-Net) was trained to automatically locate five landmarks (glenohumeral joint centre, humeral shaft, inferior and superior edges of the glenoid and most lateral point of the acromion) and a calibration sphere.

RESULTS

The nnU-Net was trained with ground-truth data from 6021 fluoroscopic images of 40 shoulders and tested with 1925 fluoroscopic images of 10 shoulders. The automatic landmark detection algorithm achieved an accuracy above inter-rater variability and slightly below intra-rater variability. All landmarks and the calibration sphere were located within 1.5 mm, except the humeral landmark within 9.6 mm, but differences in abduction angles were within 1°.

CONCLUSION

The proposed algorithm detects the desired landmarks on fluoroscopic images with sufficient accuracy and can therefore be applied to automatically assess shoulder motion, scapular rotation or glenohumeral translation in the scapular plane.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT

This nnU-net algorithm facilitates efficient and objective identification and tracking of anatomical landmarks on fluoroscopic images necessary for measuring clinically relevant anatomical configuration (e.g. critical shoulder angle) and enables investigation of dynamic glenohumeral joint stability in pathological shoulders.

KEY POINTS

• Anatomical configuration and glenohumeral joint stability are often a concern after rotator cuff tears. • Artificial intelligence applied to fluoroscopic images helps to identify and track anatomical landmarks during dynamic movements. • The developed automatic landmark detection algorithm optimised the labelling procedures and is suitable for clinical application.

Fully automatic tracking of native glenohumeral kinematics from stereo-radiography

The current work introduces a system for fully automatic tracking of native glenohumeral kinematics in stereo-radiography sequences. The proposed method first applies convolutional neural networks to obtain segmentation and semantic key point predictions in biplanar radiograph frames. Preliminary bone pose estimates are computed by solving a non-convex optimization problem with semidefinite relaxations to register digitized bone landmarks to semantic key points. Initial poses are then refined by registering computed tomography-based digitally reconstructed radiographs to captured scenes, which are masked by segmentation maps to isolate the shoulder joint. A particular neural net architecture which exploits subject-specific geometry is also introduced to improve segmentation predictions and increase robustness of subsequent pose estimates. The method is evaluated by comparing predicted glenohumeral kinematics to manually tracked values from 17 trials capturing 4 dynamic activities. Median orientation differences between predicted and ground truth poses were 1.7∘ and 8.6∘ for the scapula and humerus, respectively. Joint-level kinematics differences were less than 2∘ in 65%, 13%, and 63% of frames for XYZ orientation DoFs based on Euler angle decompositions. Automation of kinematic tracking can increase scalability of tracking workflows in research, clinical, or surgical applications.

Effect of Anterior Acromial Coverage on Functional and Radiological Outcomes After Arthroscopic Repair of Anteroposterior Massive Rotator Cuff Tears

BACKGROUND

Rotator cuff tear size, fatty infiltration, and scapular morphology are correlated with tendon healing and functional outcomes after arthroscopic repair; however, the association between anteroposterior acromial coverage and the clinical outcomes of anteroposterior massive rotator cuff tears (AP-MRCTs; involving all 3 tendons) remains unclear.

PURPOSE

To identify the association between AP acromial coverage and functional and radiological outcomes after arthroscopic repair of AP-MRCTs.

STUDY DESIGN

Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.

METHODS

A total of 98 patients who underwent arthroscopic repair of AP-MRCTs between January 2015 and December 2020 were included in the study and classified according to whether anterior acromial coverage (AAC) was anterior (46 patients; positive AAC group) or posterior (52 patients; negative AAC group) to the scapular line on true lateral shoulder radiographs. Demographic characteristics, surgical details, and functional outcomes were prospectively collected. Acromial morphological features, global tear extension (GTE), the global fatty infiltration index (GFII), tendon integrity after repair, proximal humeral migration, and glenohumeral abduction were measured and calculated on radiographs or magnetic resonance imaging scans preoperatively and at 2 years postoperatively. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to identify the independent risk factors of a rotator cuff retear.

RESULTS

The positive AAC group showed larger AAC, posterior acromial tilt, and anterior acromial slope as well as smaller posterior acromial coverage compared with the negative AAC group. Postoperatively, the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score (82.5 ± 8.3 vs 77.2 ± 11.5, respectively; P = .013), active abduction (157.8°± 27.1° vs 142.7°± 39.6°, respectively; P = .048), and glenohumeral abduction (45.6°± 10.4° vs 39.7°± 14.9°, respectively; P = .041) in the positive AAC group were significantly higher than those in the negative AAC group, while the retear rate (23.9% vs 44.2%, respectively; P = .035) and proximal humeral migration (1.7 ± 1.0 vs 2.3 ± 1.2 mm, respectively; P = .006) were significantly lower in the positive AAC group than in the negative AAC group. Smaller AAC (odds ratio [OR], 0.93 [95% CI, 0.87-1.00]; P = .040), larger GTE (OR, 1.03 [95% CI, 1.01-1.06]; P = .017), and a higher GFII (OR, 3.49 [95% CI, 1.09-11.19]; P = .036) were associated with an increased risk of a rotator cuff retear.

CONCLUSION

Increased AAC was associated with a lower retear rate and better functional outcomes after arthroscopic repair of AP-MRCTs. A preliminary risk evaluation integrating GTE, the GFII, and AAC is recommended to consider the necessity of additional procedures for patients in need of arthroscopic rotator cuff repair.

Exercise for rotator cuff tendinopathy: Proposed mechanisms of recovery

Rotator cuff (RC) tendinopathy is a common recurrent cause of shoulder pain, and resistance exercise is the first-line recommended intervention. Proposed causal mechanisms of resistance exercise for patients with RC tendinopathy consist of four domains: tendon structure, neuromuscular factors, pain and sensorimotor processing, and psychosocial factors. Tendon structure plays a role in RC tendinopathy, with decreased stiffness, increased thickness, and collagen disorganization. Neuromuscular performance deficits of altered kinematics, muscle activation, and force are present in RC tendinopathy, but advanced methods of assessing muscle performance are needed to fully assess these factors. Psychological factors of depression, anxiety, pain catastrophizing, treatment expectations, and self-efficacy are present and predict patient-reported outcomes. Central nervous system dysfunctions also exist, specifically altered pain and sensorimotor processing. Resisted exercise may normalize these factors, but limited evidence exists to explain the relationship of the four proposed domains to trajectory of recovery and defining persistent deficits limiting outcomes. Clinicians and researchers can use this model to understand how exercise mediates change in patient outcomes, develop subgroups to deliver patient-specific approach for treatment and define metrics to track recovery over time. Supporting evidence is limited, indicating the need for future studies characterizing mechanisms of recovery with exercise for RC tendinopathy.

The influence of three-dimensional scapular kinematics on arm elevation angle in healthy subjects

BACKGROUND

We often clinically observe individual differences in arm elevation angles, but the motion producing these differences remains unclear, partly because of the difficulty of accurately measuring scapular motion. The aim of this study was to determine whether the scapular or glenohumeral (GH) motion has more influence on differences in the arm elevation angles by capturing not only the humerus and scapula but also the trunk using two- (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) shape-matching registration techniques.

METHODS

Fifteen healthy subjects (13 male and 2 female; mean age: 27.7 years) were instructed to elevate their arms in the sagittal, scapular, and coronal planes. They were divided into high and low groups based on the average of arm elevation angle measured by a goniometer. The 3D scapular, thoracohumeral, and glenohumeral motions were evaluated using 2D/3D single-plane registration. To compare 3D motions between groups, we performed a two-way repeated measures analysis of variance.

RESULTS

Eight subjects were assigned to the high group, while seven subjects were assigned to the low groups based on an average elevation angle of 172°. The low group demonstrated a significant larger scapular protraction during elevation in all planes (P = 0.0002 for flexion; P = 0.0047 for scaption; P = 0.0314 for abduction), and smaller posterior tilting only during flexion (P = 0.0157). No significant differences occurred in scapular upward rotations or the glenohumeral positions and rotations.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that insufficient scapular retraction and posterior tilting results in lower arm elevation angles, suggesting that improving the flexibility and activation of muscles surrounding the scapula may be important to achieve complete arm elevation.

Scapular Dyskinesis in the Athletic Patient: A Sport-Specific Review

»

Scapular dyskinesis is an alteration of normal scapular kinematics. It is essential that each patient be evaluated holistically and that sport-related factors be taken into account.

»

The presentation of scapular dyskinesis may be highly variable depending on the underlying etiology or associated pathology, but the onset of symptoms is often gradual.

»

Sport-specific literature on scapular dyskinesis is most commonly reported in the context of baseball, swimming, and tennis. Treatment is most often conservative and involves physical therapy directed at the scapular stabilizers.

How does computed tomography inform our understanding of shoulder kinematics? A structured review

The objective of this structured review was to review how computed tomography (CT) scanning has been used to measure the kinematics of the shoulder. A literature search was conducted using Evidence-based Medicine Reviews (Embase) and PubMed. In total, 29 articles were included in the data extraction process. Forty percent of the studies evaluated healthy participants' shoulder kinematics. The glenohumeral joint was the most studied, followed by the scapulothoracic, acromioclavicular, and sternoclavicular joints. Three-dimensional computed tomography (3DCT) and 3DCT with biplane fluoroscopy are the two primary imaging techniques that have been used to measure shoulder joints' motion under different conditions. Finally, many discrepancies in the reporting of the examined motions were found. Different authors used different perspectives and planes to report similar motions, which results in confusion and misunderstanding of the actual examined motion. The use of 3DCT has been widely used in the examination of shoulder kinematics in a variety of populations with varying methods employed. Future work is needed to extend these methodologies to include more diverse populations, to examine the shoulder complex as a whole, and to standardize their reporting of motion examined to make study to study comparisons possible.

Mechanistic insights into glenohumeral kinematics derived from positional relationship between the contact path and humeral tuberosity

Although three-dimensional (3D) glenohumeral (GH) motion has generally been expressed only by rotational elements, its mechanistic details, including GH rotations, remain unknown owing to a lack of geometric investigations. This study aims to investigate the positional relationship between the contact path and humeral tuberosities at the GH joint during arm elevation and to consider the mechanism of GH kinematics. Shoulder kinematics were captured using two-dimensional and 3D single-plane image registration techniques in 15 young healthy subjects during flexion, scaption, and abduction. The glenoid movement relative to the humeral head was calculated to describe the contact path on the humeral head. From the start to 45° of flexion, scaption, and abduction, the glenoid center moved from the anteromedial to the anterior, central, and posterior portions of the humeral head, respectively, as the GH joint rotated externally. From 45° to the maximal elevation for all elevation planes, the glenoid center moved upward to the humeral head and came close to the bicipital groove (BG) at maximal elevation, while the glenoid maintained a constant inclination at 20°-40° relative to the humerus. To investigate this mechanism, the position of humeral tuberosities relative to the glenoid was calculated, and the BG was found to face the supraglenoid tubercle, the attachment site of the long head of biceps (LHB). GH external rotation mainly occurred depending on the elevation planes in the early phase of elevation, and it might be kept constant by the LHB and rotator cuff in the mid- to end range of elevation.

Three-dimensional shoulder kinematics: Upright four-dimensional computed tomography in comparison with an optical three-dimensional motion capture system

Although shoulder kinematics have been analyzed by various methods, dynamic shoulder motion is difficult to track. This study aimed to validate the shoulder kinematic analysis using upright four-dimensional computed tomography (4DCT) and to compare the results with optical three-dimensional motion capture. During active elevation, bilateral shoulders of 10 healthy volunteers were tracked using 4DCT and motion capture. The scapulothoracic and glenohumeral rotations and the scapulohumeral rhythm (SHR) at each position were calculated, and the differences between 4DCT and motion capture were compared. During 10-140° of humerothoracic elevation, the scapulothoracic joint showed upward rotation, internal rotation, and posterior tilting, and the glenohumeral joint showed elevation, external rotation, and anterior plane of elevation in both analyses. In scapulothoracic rotations, the mean differences between the two analyses were -2.6° in upward rotation, 13.9° in internal rotation, and 6.4° in posterior tilting, and became significant with humerothoracic elevation ≥110° in upward rotation, ≥50° in internal rotation, and ≥100° in posterior tilting. In glenohumeral rotations, the mean differences were 3.7° in elevation, 9.1° in internal rotation, and -8.8° in anterior plane of elevation, and became significant with humerothoracic elevation ≥110° in elevation, ≥90° in internal rotation, and ≥100° in anterior plane of elevation. The mean overall SHRs were 1.8 in 4DCT and 2.4 in motion capture, and the differences became significant with humerothoracic elevation ≥100°. The 4DCT analysis of in vivo shoulder kinematics using upright computed tomography scanner is feasible, but the values were different from those by skin-based analysis at the elevated arm positions.

Glenoid Track Width Is Smaller Under Dynamic Conditions: An In Vivo Dual-Fluoroscopy Imaging Study

BACKGROUND

The glenoid track concept has been widely used to assess the risk of instability due to bipolar bone loss. The glenoid track width was commonly used as 83% of the glenoid width to determine if a lesion was on-track or off-track. However, the value was obtained under static conditions, and it may not be able to reflect the actual mechanism of traumatic dislocation during motion.

PURPOSE

To compare the glenoid track width under dynamic and static conditions using a dual-fluoroscopic imaging system.

STUDY DESIGN

Controlled laboratory study.

METHODS

In total, 40 shoulders of 20 healthy volunteers were examined for both dynamic and static tests within a dual-fluoroscopic imaging system at 5 different arm positions: 30°, 60°, 90°, 120°, and 150° of abduction, keeping the shoulder at 90° of external rotation. The participants performed a fast horizontal arm backswing for dynamic tests while keeping their arm in maximum horizontal extension for static tests. Computed tomography scans were used to create 3-dimensional models of the humerus and scapula for 2-dimensional to 3-dimensional image registration. Magnetic resonance imaging scans were obtained to delineate the medial margin of the rotator cuff insertion. The glenoid track width was measured as the distance from the anterior rim of the glenoid to the medial margin of the rotator cuff insertion and compared between static and dynamic conditions.

RESULTS

The mean glenoid track widths at 30°, 60°, 90°, 120°, and 150° of abduction were significantly smaller under dynamic conditions (88%, 81%, 72%, 69%, and 68% of the glenoid width) than those under static conditions (101%, 92%, 84%, 78%, and 77% of the glenoid width) (all P < .001). The glenoid track width significantly decreased with the increasing abduction angles in the range of 30° to 120° under static conditions (all P < .003) and 30° to 90° under dynamic conditions (all P < .001).

CONCLUSION

A smaller dynamic-based value should be considered for the glenoid track width when distinguishing on-track/off-track lesions. Clinical evidence is needed to establish the superiority of the dynamic-based value over the static-based value as an indicator for augmentation procedures.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Some off-track lesions might be misclassified as on-track lesions when the original commonly used static-based value of 83% is used as the glenoid track width.

Reliability of the Fluoroscopic Assessment of Load-Induced Glenohumeral Translation during a 30° Shoulder Abduction Test

Rotator cuff tears are often linked to superior translational instability, but a thorough understanding of glenohumeral motion is lacking. This study aimed to assess the reliability of fluoroscopically measured glenohumeral translation during a shoulder abduction test. Ten patients with rotator cuff tears participated in this study. Fluoroscopic images were acquired during 30° abduction and adduction in the scapular plane with and without handheld weights of 2 kg and 4 kg. Images were labelled by two raters, and inferior–superior glenohumeral translation was calculated. During abduction, glenohumeral translation (mean (standard deviation)) ranged from 3.3 (2.2) mm for 0 kg to 4.1 (1.8) mm for 4 kg, and from 2.3 (1.5) mm for 0 kg to 3.8 (2.2) mm for 4 kg for the asymptomatic and symptomatic sides, respectively. For the translation range, moderate to good interrater (intra-class correlation coefficient ICC [95% confidence interval (CI)]; abduction: 0.803 [0.691; 0.877]; adduction: 0.705 [0.551; 0.813]) and intrarater reliabilities (ICC [95% CI]; abduction: 0.817 [0.712; 0.887]; adduction: 0.688 [0.529; 0.801]) were found. Differences in the translation range between the repeated measurements were not statistically significant (mean difference, interrater: abduction, −0.1 mm, p = 0.686; adduction, −0.1 mm, p = 0.466; intrarater: abduction 0.0 mm, p = 0.888; adduction, 0.2 mm, p = 0.275). This method is suitable for measuring inferior–superior glenohumeral translation in the scapular plane.

Subject-specific model-derived kinematics of the shoulder based on skin markers during arm abduction up to 180° - assessment of 4 gleno-humeral joint models

Accuracy of shoulder kinematics predicted by multi-body kinematics optimisation depend on the joint models used. This study assesses the influence of four different subject-specific gleno-humeral joint models within multi-body kinematics optimisation: a 6-degree-of-freedom joint (i.e. single-body kinematics optimisation), a sphere-on-sphere joint (with two spheres of different radii) and a spherical joint with or without penalised translation. To drive these models, the 3D coordinates of 12 skin markers of 6 subjects performing static arm abduction poses up to 180° were used. The reference data was obtained using biplane X-rays from which 3D bone reconstructions were generated: scapula and humerus were 3D reconstructed by fitting a template model made of geometrical primitives on the two bones' X-rays. Without any motion capture system, the recording of the skin markers was performed at the very same time than the X-rays with radiopaque markers. The gleno-humeral displacements and angles, and scapula-thoracic angles were computed. The gleno-humeral sphere-on-sphere joint provided slightly better results than the spherical joint with or without penalised translation, but considerably better gleno-humeral displacements than the 6-DoF joint. Considering that it can easily be personalised from medical images, this sphere-on-sphere model seems promising for shoulder multi-body kinematics optimisation.

Effect of two types of shoulder prosthesis on the muscle forces using a generic multibody model for different arm motions

Background

This study aims to analyze the effects of a novel dual-bearing shoulder prosthesis and a conventional reverse shoulder prosthesis on the deltoid and rotator cuff muscle forces for four different arm motions. The dual-bearing prosthesis is a glenoid-sparing joint replacement with a moving center of rotation. It has been developed to treat rotator cuff arthropathy, providing an increased post-operative functionality.

Methods

A three-dimensional musculoskeletal OpenSim® model of an upper body, incorporating a natural gleno-humeral joint and a scapula-thoracic joint developed by Blana et al. (J Biomech 41: 1714-1721, 2008), was used as a reference for the natural shoulder. It was modified by integrating first a novel dual-bearing prosthesis, and second, a reverse shoulder prosthesis into the shoulder joint complex. Four different arm motions, namely abduction, scaption, internal and external rotation, were simulated using an inverse kinematics approach. For each of the three models, shoulder muscle forces and joint reaction forces were calculated with a 2 kg weight in the hand.

Results

In general, the maximal shoulder muscle force and joint reaction force values were in a similar range for both prosthesis models during all four motions. The maximal deltoid muscle forces in the model with the dual-bearing prosthesis were 18% lower for abduction and 3% higher for scaption compared to the natural shoulder. The maximal rotator cuff muscle forces in the model with the dual-bearing prosthesis were 36% lower for abduction and 1% higher for scaption compared to the natural shoulder. Although the maximal deltoid muscle forces in the model with the dual-bearing prosthesis in internal and external rotation were 52% and 64% higher, respectively, compared to the natural shoulder, the maximal rotator cuff muscle forces were 27% lower in both motions.

Conclusion

The study shows that the dual-bearing shoulder prosthesis is a feasible option for patients with rotator cuff tear and has a strong potential to be used as secondary as well as primary joint replacement. The study also demonstrates that computer simulations can help to guide the continued optimization of this particular design concept for successful clinical outcomes.

Comparison of glenohumeral joint kinematics between manual wheelchair tasks and implications on the subacromial space: A biplane fluoroscopy study

Scapula and humerus motion associated with common manual wheelchair tasks is hypothesized to reduce the subacromial space. However, previous work relied on either marker-based motion capture for kinematic measures, which is prone to skin-motion artifact; or ultrasound imaging for arthrokinematic measures, which are 2D and acquired in statically-held positions. The aim of this study was to use a fluoroscopy-based approach to accurately quantify glenohumeral kinematics during manual wheelchair use, and compare tasks for a subset of parameters theorized to be associated with mechanical impingement. Biplane images of the dominant shoulder were acquired during scapular plane elevation, propulsion, sideways lean, and weight-relief raise in ten manual wheelchair users with spinal cord injury. A computed tomography scan of the shoulder was obtained, and model-based tracking was used to quantify six-degree-of-freedom glenohumeral kinematics. Axial rotation and superior/inferior and anterior/posterior humeral head positions were characterized for full activity cycles and compared between tasks. The change in the subacromial space was also determined for the period of each task defined by maximal change in the aforementioned parameters. Propulsion, sideways lean, and weight-relief raise, but not scapular plane elevation, were marked by mean internal rotation (8.1°, 10.8°, 14.7°, -49.2° respectively). On average, the humeral head was most superiorly positioned during the weight-relief raise (1.6 ± 0.9 mm), but not significantly different from the sideways lean (0.8 ± 1.1 mm) (p = 0.191), and much of the task was characterized by inferior translation. Scaption was the only task without a defined period of superior translation on average. Pairwise comparisons revealed no significant differences between tasks for anterior/posterior position (task means range: 0.1-1.7 mm), but each task exhibited defined periods of anterior translation. There was not a consistent trend across tasks between internal rotation, superior translation, and anterior translation with reductions in the subacromial space. Further research is warranted to determine the likelihood of mechanical impingement during these tasks based on the measured task kinematics and reductions in the subacromial space.

Ratio between 3D glenohumeral and scapulothoracic motions in individuals without shoulder pain

This study determined the ratio between glenohumeral and three-dimensional scapular motion during arm elevation and lowering in 91 individuals without shoulder pain. Scapular kinematics were assessed using an electromagnetic tracking device. Individuals performed 3 repetitions of elevation and lowering of the arm in the sagittal plane. Two-way ANOVAs (interval: 30-60°, 60-90°, 90-120° x phase: elevation and lowering) and paired t-tests were used for data analysis. For scapular internal/external rotation, lesser scapular internal rotation contribution was found during the 60-90° interval as compared to the 90-60° interval. Lesser scapular external rotation was identified in the 60-30° interval of arm lowering. The ratio was greater during arm elevation (1.89) compared to lowering (1.74) across the entire motion arc. For scapular upward rotation, greater upward rotation contribution was observed during arm elevation at the 30-60° interval, and less scapular downward rotation contribution in the final range of arm lowering. For scapular tilt, lesser scapular posterior tilt contribution during arm elevation was observed compared to arm lowering. The ratios between glenohumeral elevation/lowering and each individual scapulothoracic motion showed either differences between intervals and/or between elevation and lowering during specific intervals in healthy individuals.

Kinematics and biomechanical validity of shoulder joint laxity tests as diagnostic criteria in multidirectional instability

BACKGROUND

Clinical laxity tests are commonly used together to identify individuals with multidirectional instability (MDI). However, their biomechanical validity in distinguishing distinct biomechanical characteristics consistent with MDI has not been demonstrated.

OBJECTIVE

To determine if differences in glenohumeral (GH) joint laxity exist between individuals diagnosed with multidirectional instability (MDI) and asymptomatic matched controls without MDI.

METHODS

Eighteen participants (9 swimmers with MDI, 9 non-swimming asymptomatic matched controls without MDI) participated in this observational study. Participants were classified as having MDI with a composite laxity score from three laxity tests (anterior/posterior drawer and sulcus tests). Single plane dynamic fluoroscopy captured joint motion with 2D-3D joint registration to derive 3D joint kinematics. Average GH translations occurring during the laxity tests were compared between groups using an independent sample's t-test. The relationship of composite laxity scores to overall translations was examined with a simple linear regression. Differences of each laxity test translation between groups were analyzed with a two-way repeated measures ANOVA.

RESULTS

Mean composite translations for swimmers were 1.7 mm greater (p = 0.04, 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 0.1, 3.3 mm) compared to controls. A moderate association occurred (r² = 0.40, p = 0.005) between composite laxity scores and composite translation. Greater translations for the posterior drawer (-2.4 mm, p = 0.04, 95% CI: -0.1, -4.6) and sulcus tests (-2.7 mm, p = 0.03, 95% CI: -0.3, -5.0) existed in swimmers compared to controls.

CONCLUSION

Significant differences in composite translation existed between symptomatic swimmers with MDI and asymptomatic control participants without MDI during GH joint laxity tests. The results provide initial biomechanically based construct validity for the clinical criteria used to identify individuals with MDI.

Dynamic scapulohumeral rhythm: Comparison between healthy shoulders and those with large or massive rotator cuff tear

INTRODUCTION

Assessment of scapular kinematics and the dynamics of the scapulohumeral rhythm (SHR) would be important for understanding pathologies of the shoulder and to inform treatment. Our aim in this study was to evaluate the SHR and scapular kinematics in patients with a rotator cuff tear (RCT), compared to a control group with healthy shoulders using image-matching techniques.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The shoulder kinematics of large or massive RCT patients were evaluated and compared to a control group with healthy shoulders. Radiographic surveillance was performed throughout the full range of external rotation and scapular plane abduction. Computed tomography imaging of the shoulder complex was performed, with three-dimensional image reconstruction and matching to the radiographs to measure three-dimensional positions and orientations. SHR and angular values of the scapula were measured.

RESULTS

Scapular external rotation in the late phase of external rotation movement was greater in the RCT group than in the control group (p < 0.05), but with no difference in the SHR. During scapular plane abduction, there were significant differences in SHR, scapular posterior tilt and scapular upward rotation between the RCT and control group (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding clinical relevance, this study clarified the differences of SHR and angular values of the scapula between the RCT and control group. These results underline the importance of assessment the SHR and scapular kinematics in individuals with a RCT. RCT is associated with specific compensation in the kinematics of the scapula and SHR during external rotation and scapular plane abduction, which could inform treatment.

Evaluation of the inter and intraobserver reproducibility of the GRASP method: a goniometric method to measure the isolated glenohumeral range of motion in the shoulder joint

Purpose

To evaluate the intra and interobserver reproducibility of a new goniometric method for evaluating the isolated passive range of motion of the glenohumeral joint in an outpatient setting.

Methods

This is a prospective observational study on healthy subjects. The Glenohumeral ROM Assessment with Scapular Pinch (GRASP) method is a new method for assessing the isolated range of motion (ROM) of the glenohumeral joint (GH) by a single examiner with a clinical goniometer. It measures the isolated glenohumeral passive abduction (GH-AB), passive external rotation (GH-ER) and internal rotation (GH-IR) with the arm at 45º of abduction.

These three GH ROM parameters were measured in both shoulders of 30 healthy volunteers (15 males/15 females, mean age:41.6[SD = 10.3] years). The full shoulder passive abduction, passive external rotation and internal rotation 45º of abduction were measured by the same examiners with a goniometer for comparison. One examiner made two evaluations and a second examiner made a third one. The primary outcome was the intra- and interobserver reproducibility of the measurements assessed with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and the Bland–Altman plot.

Results

The intra-observer ICC for isolated glenohumeral ROM were: 0.84 ± 0.07 for GH-ABD, 0.63 ± 0.09 for GH-ER, and 0.61 ± 0.14 for GH-IR. The inter-observer ICC for isolated glenohumeral ROM were: 0.86 ± 0.06 for GH-ABD, 0.68 ± 0.12 for GH-ER, and 0.62 ± 0.14 for GH-IR. These results were similar to those obtained for full shoulder ROM assessment with a goniometer.

Conclusion

The GRASP method is reproducible for quick assessment of isolated glenohumeral ROM.

Level of evidence

III

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40634-021-00352-z.

Traumatic rotator cuff tears - Current concepts in diagnosis and management

Rotator cuff tears represent one of common shoulder pathologies presenting over a wide spectrum of age groups and varying presentation. Typically, rotator cuff tears occur more frequently in elderly than in younger patients, following a chronic or acute-on-chronic course and usually secondary to due to tendon degeneration. Though there has been a considerable debate in the literature of the terms "acute" and "traumatic" used in the classification of rotator cuff tears, there appears to be consensus about the need for early diagnosis to facilitate prompt surgical treatment and the improve patient outcome. Significant differences in rotator cuff tears between those occurring in younger and older patients could be due to mechanism of injury, presentation, severity of the tear, biological healing potential and rehabilitation. Acute traumatic rotator cuff tears especially in younger age group represent a distinct entity from other patterns of rotator cuff tears. Consequently, a high index of suspicion, focused clinical examination, complementary imaging is a pre-requisite for an early diagnosis and effective management. We analyze the biomechanical consequences of acute rotator cuff tears along with characteristic mechanism of injury and spectrum of tendon involvement. The evolving concepts in the diagnosis and management of these distinct injuries are discussed with review of current literature.

Scapulothoracic Dyskinesis: A Concept Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Scapulothoracic dyskinesis (SD) occurs when there is a noticeable disruption in typical position and motion of the scapula, which can result in debilitating pain. The purpose of this review is to describe the current knowledge regarding the diagnosis and management of scapulothoracic dyskinesis by providing an evidence-based overview of clinical exams and treatment modalities available for orthopedic surgeons and provide insight into which treatment modalities require further investigation.

RECENT FINDINGS

SD is highly prevalent in athletes, particularly those participating in overhead activities (e.g., baseball, tennis, and swimming) and can coexist with several shoulder pathologies. A holistic approach in the diagnosis of SD has been supported in the literature; however, it is important to recognize that diagnosis is currently limited to the absence of a quantitative SD clinical assessment. The main goal of the treatment of SD is to regain proper scapular positioning and dynamics. The standard of care for the management of SD is conservative interventions aimed at optimizing scapular kinematics. Surgical intervention is only considered in the presence of concomitant pathology requiring surgery. Due to the complexity of coordinated movement of the shoulder girdle, recent literature has begun to move away from the use of traditional orthopedic tests, in favor of a more system-based approach for the diagnosis of SD. We present a concise review of clinical exams and treatment modalities available for orthopedic surgeons in the management of SD.

Limitation of the external glenohumeral joint rotation is associated with subacromial impingement syndrome, especially pain

Background

Subacromial impingement syndrome is a common disorder associated with functional impairment and disability of the shoulder. Internal/external glenohumeral rotation is important for shoulder function. However, because it is difficult to measure the glenohumeral joint rotation angle physically, the relationship between this angle and the clinical symptoms of subacromial impingement syndrome is still largely unknown. Using advanced cine-magnetic resonance imaging techniques, we designed a study to improve our understanding of the nature of this relationship.

Methods

We evaluated 100 shoulders with subacromial impingement syndrome. Patients underwent cine-magnetic resonance imaging during axial rotation with the arm adducted. During imaging, patients rotated their shoulder from maximum internal rotation to maximum external rotation over 10 seconds and then to maximum internal rotation over 10 seconds. The rotation angles were then evaluated using a series of axial images. The Constant–Murley (Constant) and UCLA scores for each patient were determined, and the correlation between the scores and rotational angles was assessed. Patients were divided into 3 groups according to the Constant pain score, and the rotational angles of each group were compared. Rotational angles were also compared between shoulders with and without night pain.

Results

The external rotation angle showed a significant but low correlation with the Constant and UCLA scores (ρ = 0.24 and 0.24, respectively), whereas the internal rotation angle did not. In comparing the pain groups of Constant score and UCLA score, the external rotation angle significantly decreased as pain increased (P < .01), demonstrating a negative correlation (ρ = −0.47, −0.41, respectively). Additionally, the shoulders of patients with night pain showed significantly more restriction of external rotation angles than the shoulders of those without night pain (P = .01).

Conclusions

Limitation of the glenohumeral joint’s external rotation is correlated with pain, for which we explore possible explanations. The results suggest that night pain can be effectively reduced using therapeutic interventions that target external rotational dysfunction.

Discriminating the precision of inertial sensors between healthy and damaged shoulders during scaption movement: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Shoulder assessment in rehabilitation is focused on kinematic properties due to the variability of symptomatology and clinical expression of shoulder injuries.

AIM

To perform a receiver operating characteristic analysis of the kinematic variables involved in the functional mobility of the shoulder that allow the identification of discriminating variables between healthy and diseased shoulders during scaption motion.

METHOD

Analytical cross-sectional study of diagnostic effectiveness was performed in 27 subjects suffering from shoulder damage and 14 asymptomatic controls. Scaption kinematics were evaluated using four inertial sensors placed on the humerus, scapula, forearm and sternum. Three variables (mobility, velocity and acceleration) were obtained from each sensor and the norm of the resultant vector was calculated from each axis. A discriminatory receiver operating characteristic analysis was performed, obtaining the area under the curve, sensitivity and specificity.

FINDINGS

Significant differences from both the resultant vectors and the axis depended on the body segment analysed were observed. Greater movement velocity and acceleration were observed in the asymptomatic group. Receiver operating characteristic analysis, scapular protraction-retraction mobility distinguished with a diagnostic sensitivity of 83.3% and specificity of 90.9% between asymptomatic and shoulder-damaged patients. These diagnosis values were 83.3% and 72.7% for scapular anterior-posterior velocity. Scapular kinematics, in terms of mobility and velocity, are the key variables in shoulder assessment.

INTERPRETATION

This study discriminated between patients suffering from shoulder damage and asymptomatic subjects based on shoulder kinematics during scaption motion. Scapular mobility and velocity were found to be key variables in shoulder assessment, along with the humerus.

A rare case of extensive Staphylococcus aureus sternoclavicular septic arthritis treated without surgical intervention

This is a rare case of a 55 year-old immunocompetent female who developed Methicillin sensitive Staphylococcus aureus sternoclavicular septic arthritis. The infection was not limited to the joint space but extended into adjacent bones and superior mediastinum. However the patient was successfully treated without surgical intervention and preservation of joint function was obtained with only intravenous antibiotic therapy.

Replicating dynamic humerus motion using an industrial robot

Transhumeral percutaneous osseointegrated prostheses provide upper-extremity amputees with increased range of motion, more natural movement patterns, and enhanced proprioception. However, direct skeletal attachment of the endoprosthesis elevates the risk of bone fracture, which could necessitate revision surgery or result in loss of the residual limb. Bone fracture loads are direction dependent, strain rate dependent, and load rate dependent. Furthermore, in vivo, bone experiences multiaxial loading. Yet, mechanical characterization of the bone-implant interface is still performed with simple uni- or bi-axial loading scenarios that do not replicate the dynamic multiaxial loading environment inherent in human motion. The objective of this investigation was to reproduce the dynamic multiaxial loading conditions that the humerus experiences in vivo by robotically replicating humeral kinematics of advanced activities of daily living typical of an active amputee population. Specifically, 115 jumping jack, 105 jogging, 15 jug lift, and 15 internal rotation trials-previously recorded via skin-marker motion capture-were replicated on an industrial robot and the resulting humeral trajectories were verified using an optical tracking system. To achieve this goal, a computational pipeline that accepts a motion capture trajectory as input and outputs a motion program for an industrial robot was implemented, validated, and made accessible via public code repositories. The industrial manipulator utilized in this study was able to robotically replicate over 95% of the aforementioned trials to within the characteristic error present in skin-marker derived motion capture datasets. This investigation demonstrates the ability to robotically replicate human motion that recapitulates the inertial forces and moments of high-speed, multiaxial activities for biomechanical and orthopaedic investigations. It also establishes a library of robotically replicated motions that can be utilized in future studies to characterize the interaction of prosthetic devices with the skeletal system, and introduces a computational pipeline for expanding this motion library.

Patterns of muscle coordination during dynamic glenohumeral joint elevation: An EMG study

The shoulder relies heavily on coordinated muscle activity for normal function owing to its limited osseous constraint. However, previous studies have failed to examine the sophisticated interrelationship between all muscles. It is essential for these normal relationships to be defined as a basis for understanding pathology. Therefore, the primary aim of the study was to investigate shoulder inter-muscular coordination during different planes of shoulder elevation. Twenty healthy subjects were included. Electromyography was recorded from 14 shoulder girdle muscles as subjects performed shoulder flexion, scapula plane elevation, abduction and extension. Cross-correlation was used to examine the coordination between different muscles and muscle groups. Significantly higher coordination existed between the rotator cuff and deltoid muscle groups during the initial (Pearson Correlation Coefficient (PCC) = 0.79) and final (PCC = 0.74) stages of shoulder elevation compared to the mid-range (PCC = 0.34) (p = 0.020–0.035). Coordination between the deltoid and a functional adducting group comprising the latissimus dorsi and teres major was particularly high (PCC = 0.89) during early shoulder elevation. The destabilising force of the deltoid, during the initial stage of shoulder elevation, is balanced by the coordinated activity of the rotator cuff, latissimus dorsi and teres major. Stability requirements are lower during the mid-range of elevation. At the end-range of movement the demand for muscular stability again increases and higher coordination is seen between the deltoid and rotator cuff muscle groups. It is proposed that by appreciating the sophistication of normal shoulder function targeted evidence-based rehabilitation strategies for conditions such as subacromial impingement syndrome or shoulder instability can be developed.

Evaluation of the Translation Distance of the Glenohumeral Joint and the Function of the Rotator Cuff on Its Translation: A Cadaveric Study

PURPOSE

To evaluate the distance and position of humeral head translation during glenohumeral motion and to investigate the function of the rotator cuff in glenohumeral translation.

METHODS

Using 9 cadavers, glenohumeral translation during passive pendulum motion was tracked by an optical motion capture system. Tension was applied to 5 compartments of the rotator cuff muscles, and 7 different conditions of rotator cuff dysfunction were sequentially simulated. Three-dimensional glenohumeral structure was reconstructed from the computed tomography images of the specimens, and the distance and position of glenohumeral translation were compared among the conditions.

RESULTS

The average radius of glenohumeral translation was 10.6 ± 4.3 mm when static loading was applied to all rotator cuff muscles. The radius increased significantly in the models without traction force on the supraspinatus and total subscapularis tendons (P = .030). The position of the translation center did not change in the mediolateral direction (P = .587) and in the anteroposterior direction (P = .138), but it moved significantly superiorly in the models without supraspinatus and infraspinatus loading (P = .011) and in those without supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor loading (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

The distance and position of humeral head translation during glenohumeral motion changed with rotator cuff deficiency. The present study indicated that the subscapularis plays an important role in maintaining the central position of the humeral head, and that the infraspinatus acts as a major depressor of the humeral head during shoulder motion.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The results of this study suggest that extension of a tear into the subscapularis should be avoided to maintain the centering function of the glenohumeral joint in cases with rotator cuff tear.

Scapular Dyskinesis in Young, Asymptomatic Elite Swimmers

Background:

Overhead athletes are at a greater risk of developing scapular dyskinesis (SD). Although swimming is considered an overhead sport, information regarding SD in these athletes is scarce.

Purpose:

To determine the prevalence of SD in young, asymptomatic elite swimmers.

Study Design:

Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.

Methods:

A total of 661 asymptomatic elite swimmers were enrolled in this study (344 male, 317 female; mean age, 15.83 ± 2.20 years). Anthropometric characteristics, training routine, and stroke specialty were recorded. SD was assessed using a dynamic test consisting of an examination of the shoulder blades throughout synchronous forward flexion motion in the sagittal plane and was deemed to be either present or absent. Each movement was repeated 5 times. These evaluations were performed with athletes at rest, before any training or competition. Statistical analysis was performed.

Results:

SD was detected in 56 (8.5%) participants. Type I SD was the most common (46.5%); male participants were 2 times as likely to have SD as female participants (39 male, 17 female; P < .01). No correlation was found between the dominant limb and side affected (P = .258); rather, a correlation was found between the breathing side and side affected, in that swimmers with a preferred breathing side were more prone to develop SD in the opposite shoulder (P < .05). Swimmers involved in long-distance races were found to have a greater risk of developing SD (P = .01).

Conclusion:

SD may be an asymptomatic condition in elite young swimmers and is present in 8.5% of these athletes. Early diagnosis may be useful for asymptomatic athletes with SD and to avoid its possible evolution to a symptomatic condition.

Dynamic kinematics of the glenohumeral joint in shoulders with rotator cuff tears

Background

No clear trend has emerged from the literature regarding three-dimensional (3D) translations of the humerus relative to the scapula in shoulders with rotator cuff tears (RCTs). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the kinematics of RCT shoulders using 3D-to-two-dimensional (2D) model-to-image registration techniques.

Methods

Dynamic glenohumeral kinematics during scapular plane abduction and axial rotation were analyzed in 11 RCT patients and 10 healthy control subjects. We measured the 3D kinematic parameters of glenohumeral joints using X-ray images and CT-derived digitally reconstructed radiographs.

Results

For scapular plane abduction, the humeral head center was positioned significantly more medially in shoulders with RCTs than in controls at 135° of humeral abduction (p = 0.02; RCTs versus controls: − 0.9 ± 1.6 versus 0.3 ± 1.3 mm). There was no significant difference in the superior/inferior translation of the humeral head center (p = 0.99). For axial rotation in adducted position, the humeral head center was positioned significantly more anteriorly in shoulders with RCTs than in controls at − 30° of glenohumeral external rotation (p < 0.0001; RCTs versus controls: 3.0 ± 1.7 versus 0.3 ± 1.5 mm).

Conclusions

This study revealed the kinematics of shoulders with large to massive full-thickness RCTs: the humeral head center showed a medial shift at the late phase of scapular plane full abduction, and an anterior shift at the internal rotation position during full axial rotation. The kinematic data in this study, which describe the patterns of movement of shoulders with large to massive full-thickness RCTs, provide valuable information for future studies investigating glenohumeral translations in other pathological conditions of the shoulder. For clinical relevance, quantitative assessment of the dynamic kinematics of shoulders with RCTs might be a therapeutic indicator for achieving functional restoration.

Validation of single-plane fluoroscopy and 2D/3D shape-matching for quantifying shoulder complex kinematics

Fluoroscopy and 2D/3D shape-matching has emerged as the standard for non-invasively quantifying kinematics. However, its accuracy has not been well established for the shoulder complex when using single-plane fluoroscopy. The purpose of this study was to determine the accuracy of single-plane fluoroscopy and 2D/3D shape-matching for quantifying full shoulder complex kinematics. Tantalum markers were implanted into the clavicle, humerus, and scapula of four cadaveric shoulders. Biplane radiographs were obtained with the shoulder in five humerothoracic elevation positions (arm at the side, 30°, 60°, 90°, maximum). Images from both systems were used to perform marker tracking, while only those images acquired with the primary fluoroscopy system were used to perform 2D/3D shape-matching. Kinematics errors due to shape-matching were calculated as the difference between marker tracking and 2D/3D shape-matching and expressed as root mean square (RMS) error, bias, and precision. Overall RMS errors for the glenohumeral joint ranged from 0.7 to 3.3° and 1.2 to 4.2 mm, while errors for the acromioclavicular joint ranged from 1.7 to 3.4°. Errors associated with shape-matching individual bones ranged from 1.2 to 3.2° for the humerus, 0.5 to 1.6° for the scapula, and 0.4 to 3.7° for the clavicle. The results of the study demonstrate that single-plane fluoroscopy and 2D/3D shape-matching can accurately quantify full shoulder complex kinematics in static positions.

In vivo kinematic analysis of the glenohumeral joint during dynamic full axial rotation and scapular plane full abduction in healthy shoulders

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the kinematics of healthy shoulders during dynamic full axial rotation and scapular plane full abduction using three-dimensional (3D)-to-two-dimensional (2D) model-to-image registration techniques.

METHODS

Dynamic glenohumeral kinematics during axial rotation and scapular plane abduction were analysed in 10 healthy participants. Continuous radiographic images of axial rotation and scapular plane abduction were taken using a flat panel radiographic detector. The participants received a computed tomography scan to generate virtual digitally reconstructed radiographs. The density-based digitally reconstructed radiographs were then compared with the serial radiographic images acquired using image correlations. These 3D-to-2D model-to-image registration techniques determined the 3D positions and orientations of the humerus and scapula during dynamic full axial rotation and scapular plane full abduction.

RESULTS

The humeral head centre translated an average of 2.5 ± 3.1 mm posteriorly, and 1.4 ± 1.0 mm superiorly in the early phase, then an average of 2.0 ± 0.8 mm inferiorly in the late phase during external rotation motion. The glenohumeral external rotation angle had a significant effect on the anterior/posterior (A/P) and superior/inferior (S/I) translation of the humeral head centre (both p < 0.05). 33.6 ± 15.6° of glenohumeral external rotation occurred during scapular plane abduction. The humeral head centre translated an average of 0.6 ± 0.9 mm superiorly in the early phase, then 1.7 ± 2.6 mm inferiorly in the late phase, and translated an average of 0.4 ± 0.5 mm medially in the early phase, then 1.6 ± 1.0 mm laterally in the late phase during scapular plane abduction. The humeral abduction angle had a significant effect on the S/I and lateral/medial (L/M) translation of the humeral head centre (both p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

This study investigated 3D translations of the humerus relative to the scapula: during scapular plane full abduction, the humerus rotated 33.6° externally relative to the scapula, and during external rotation motion in the adducted position, the humeral head centre translated an average of 2.5 mm posteriorly. Kinematic data will provide important insights into evaluating the kinematics of pathological shoulders. For clinical relevance, quantitative assessment of dynamic healthy shoulder kinematics might be a physiological indicator for the assessment of pathological shoulders.

Digital data acquisition of shoulder range of motion and arm motion smoothness using Kinect v2

BACKGROUND

Range of motion (ROM) is a clinically important parameter in evaluating joint function. However, dynamic evaluation to determine the quality of the arm motion using digitized measurement is often overlooked during clinical assessment. We evaluated the accuracy of Kinect v2 (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA) as a digital tool for measuring shoulder ROM objectively and proposed a concept of motion smoothness reflecting the quality of arm motion.

METHODS

Ten male participants were included in a 2-stage experiment. First, shoulder ROM was measured in 4 static poses (flexion, abduction, external rotation, and internal rotation) with Kinect v2, a 3-dimensional (3D) motion analysis system, and goniometry. Second, participants performed a point-to-point arm motion as naturally as possible. Kinematic data were collected with Kinect v2 and the 3D motion analysis system and then postprocessed to acquire parameters related to motion smoothness, including peak to mean velocity ratio, acceleration to movement time ratio, and number of peaks.

RESULTS

Kinect v2 resulted in very good agreement of ROM measurement (r > 0.9) with the 3D motion analysis (95% limits of agreement < ±8°) compared with goniometry (95% limits of agreement < ±10°). Kinect v2 also showed a good correlation and agreement of measurement of motion quality parameters compared with the 3D motion analysis (peak to mean velocity ratio, acceleration to movement time ratio, and number of peaks: r = 0.769, discrepancy = ±0.1; r = 0.922, discrepancy = ±5%; and mean = 1 ± 0, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

We show that Kinect v2 can be used as a reliable tool to measure shoulder ROM and arm motion smoothness.

Relationship Between Patient-Reported Assessment of Shoulder Function and Objective Range-of-Motion Measurements

BACKGROUND

Assessment of function is the cornerstone of clinical shoulder research. This purpose of this study was to answer 3 relevant questions: How does subjective patient assessment of shoulder function correlate with objectively measured active shoulder range of motion? What is the difference in active motion between shoulders that can and those that cannot be used to perform each of the functions of the Simple Shoulder Test (SST)? Does the relationship between subjective and objective assessment of shoulder function differ between male and female patients?

METHODS

We analyzed the relationship between objective range-of-motion measurements recorded by the observer-independent Kinect motion capture system and SST patient self-assessments of shoulder function of 74 male and 30 female patients with osteoarthritis.

RESULTS

There was poor correlation between objective measurements of active abduction and total SST scores of osteoarthritic shoulders of patients seen before shoulder surgery: the coefficients of determination (R) were 0.29 for the osteoarthritic shoulders of women and 0.25 for those of men. The relationships between active abduction and total SST score were closer for the contralateral shoulders (R = 0.54 for women and R = 0.46 for men). The difference in active abduction between the osteoarthritic shoulders that allowed and those that did not allow the patient to perform the individual SST functions was significant (p < 0.05) for only 4 of the 12 functions in the female group and 5 of 12 in the male group because of the highly variable relationship between self-assessed function and active abduction. In contrast, when the contralateral shoulders were assessed, this difference was found to be significant for 10 of the 12 functions in the female group and all 12 of the functions in the male group. The relationship between objective motion and subjective function did not differ significantly between male and female subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

The self-assessed function of osteoarthritic shoulders of women and men is only partially determined by the active range of abduction. Both subjective and objective measurements are important in characterizing the clinical status of shoulders. Studies of treatment outcomes should include separate assessments of these 2 complementary aspects of shoulder function.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Biomechanical Evaluation of Glenoid Version and Dislocation Direction on the Influence of Anterior Shoulder Instability and Development of Hill-Sachs Lesions

BACKGROUND

Abnormal glenoid version is a risk factor for shoulder instability. However, the degree to which the variance in version (both anteversion and retroversion) affects one's predisposition for instability is not well understood.

PURPOSE

To determine the influence of glenoid version on anterior shoulder joint stability and to determine if the direction of the humeral head dislocation is a stimulus for the development of Hill-Sachs lesions.

STUDY DESIGN

Controlled laboratory study.

METHODS

Ten human cadaveric shoulders (mean age, 59.4 ± 4.3 years) were tested using a custom shoulder dislocation device placed in a position of apprehension (90° of abduction with 90° of external rotation). Glenoid version was adjusted in 5° increments for a total of 6 version angles tested: +10°, +5°, 0°, -5°, -10°, and -15° (anteversion angles are positive, and retroversion angles are negative). Two humeral dislocation directions were tested. The first direction was true anterior through the anterior-posterior glenoid axis. The second dislocation direction was 35° inferior from the anterior-posterior glenoid axis based on the deforming force role of the pectoralis major. The force and energy to dislocate were recorded.

RESULTS

Changes in glenoid version manifested a linear effect on the dislocation force. The energy to dislocate increased as a second-order polynomial as a function of increasing glenoid retroversion. Glenoid version of +10° anteversion and -15° retroversion was highly unstable, resulting in spontaneous dislocation in one-quarter (10/40) and one-half (25/40) of the specimens anteriorly and posteriorly, respectively, in the absence of an applied dislocation force. The greater tuberosity was observed to engage with the anterior glenoid rim, consistent with Hill-Sachs lesions, 40% more frequently when the dislocation direction was true anterior compared with 35° inferior from the anterior-posterior glenoid axis. The engagement of the greater tuberosity caused an increase in the energy required to dislocate.

CONCLUSION

Glenoid version has a direct effect on the force required for a dislocation. An anterior-inferior dislocation direction requires less energy for a dislocation and results in a lower risk of the development of a Hill-Sachs lesion than a direct anterior dislocation direction.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Consideration should be given to glenoid version when choosing a surgical treatment option for anterior shoulder instability.

Age-related changes analyzing shoulder kinematics by means of inertial sensors

BACKGROUND

Shoulder kinematics alteration has been previously proven in subjects suffering from shoulder damage, which is also related to shoulder degenerative changes as consequence of aging. Because of that, it would be interesting to investigate age-related kinematics. The main objective was to analyze age-related differences in shoulder kinematics by means of inertial sensors in asymptomatic subjects during shoulder abduction and flexion.

METHODS

Twenty-five right arms were measured (11 from the young adult group and 14 from the older adult group). In the young group, age ranged between 20 and 34years old, while in the older group age ranged between 45 and 72years old. Angular mobility and linear acceleration from the scapula, humerus and sternum as well as mobility in the glenohumeral and scapulothoracic joints were calculated by three inertial sensors. Subjects performed shoulder abduction and flexion.

FINDINGS

Significant differences in mobility were found in humerus and scapula in mobility and acceleration during both tasks. Those differences varied depending on the plane analyzed. A moderate negative correlation between age and humerus and scapula ranged from -0.624** to -0.409*. A positive correlation was found in some planes.

INTERPRETATION

The results from the present study suggest that humerus elevation and scapular protraction-retraction as well as medio-lateral rotation are more likely to present kinematics age-related differences, i.e. older: age is associated with less mobility and acceleration in some planes and axes. Results provide inertial tridimensional measures from shoulder complex comparing groups of different age. Findings also concur with previous research supporting age-related shoulder changes.

Alterations in Glenohumeral Kinematics in Patients With Rotator Cuff Tears Measured With Biplane Fluoroscopy

PURPOSE

To quantitatively measure the 3-dimensional (3D) glenohumeral translations during dynamic shoulder abduction in the scapular plane, using a biplane fluoroscopy system, in patients with supraspinatus rotator cuff tears.

METHODS

A custom biplane fluoroscopy system was used to measure the 3D position and orientation of the scapula and humerus of 14 patients with full-thickness supraspinatus or supraspinatus and infraspinatus rotator cuff tears and 10 controls as they performed shoulder abduction over their full range of motion. The 3D geometries of the scapula and humerus were extracted from a computed tomography scan of each shoulder. For each frame, the 3D bone position and orientation were estimated using a contour-based matching algorithm, and the 3D position of the humeral head center was determined relative to the glenoid. For each subject the superior-inferior and anterior-posterior translation curves were determined from 20° through 150° of arm elevation.

RESULTS

The humeral head in shoulders with rotator cuff tears was positioned significantly inferior compared with controls for higher elevation angles of 80° to 140° (P < .05). For both groups the humeral head translated inferiorly during shoulder abduction from 80° (P = .044; rotator cuff tear v controls: -0.2 ± 1.3 v 1.2 ± 1.4 mm) up to 140° (P = .047; rotator cuff tear v controls: -1.3 ± 2.2 v 0.44 ± 1.4 mm). There was no significant translation in the anterior- posterior direction.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with well-compensated single or 2-tendon rotator cuff tears show no dynamic superior humeral head migration but unexpectedly show an inferior shift during active elevation. It is unclear whether the size of the translational differences found in this study, while statistically significant, are also of clinical significance.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, comparative study.

Effect of external load on scapular upward rotation during arm elevation: the knot concept

Background

Failure of the scapulohumeral rhythm (SHR) is observed in patients with shoulder joint dysfunction. The SHR reportedly has a 2:1 ratio during scapular upward rotation with arm elevation. However, three-dimensional scapular motion analysis has indicated variations in this ratio according to the arm elevation angle. We observed 2 distinct patterns: the scapular upward rotation decreased after knot formation (type I) or increased after knot formation (type II) during arm elevation. In the present study, we aimed to identify the knot and investigate the influence of varying external loads on this kinesiological change point.

Methods

We evaluated 35 healthy adult men (35 dominant-side shoulders) with a mean age of 20 ± 1.7 years (mean height: 172 ± 6.4 cm, mean weight: 65.7 ± 5.8 kg). Participants performed scapular plane elevation with no load or with an external load (1–5 kg) while sitting on a chair. The measured scapular upward rotation values were interpolated using the spline function and fitted to line graphs, and the change in these values was compared for various loads.

Results

The estimated knot angles (standard error) in the no load condition, and with external loads of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 kg were 83.5 (2.9°), 81.2 (2.9°), 81.0 (2.9°), 76.1 (2.9°), 73.4 (3.1°), and 75.8 (3.1°), respectively. No significant difference was noted in the knot position at 1–2 kg (vs. unloaded), although the knot was significantly lower at 3–5 kg (3 kg: p = 0.01, 4 kg: p = 0.001, and 5 kg: p = 0.02). Moreover, we observed that participants either exhibited increased or decreased upward rotational momentum after knot formation.

Conclusion

Our results confirm that the kinesiological change point (the knot) during scapular upward rotation occurred at lower angles in cases of increasing external loads.

Prevalence of Scapular Dyskinesis in Overhead and Nonoverhead Athletes: A Systematic Review

Background:

Scapular dyskinesis, or abnormal dynamic scapular control, is a condition that is commonly associated with shoulder pathology but is also present in asymptomatic individuals. Literature varies on whether it represents a cause or symptom of shoulder pathology, but it is believed to be a risk factor for further injury. Clinical identification focuses on visual observation and examination maneuvers. Treatment of altered scapular motion has been shown to improve shoulder symptoms. It is thought to be more common in overhead athletes due to their reliance on unilateral upper extremity function but the incidence within nonoverhead athletes is unknown.

Hypothesis:

Overhead athletes will have a greater prevalence of scapular dyskinesis when compared with nonoverhead athletes.

Study Design:

Systematic review; Level of evidence, 3.

Methods:

After PROSPERO registration, a systematic review was performed using PRISMA guidelines through the PubMed database looking for studies published before October 2014. All studies containing the search terms scapular, scapulothoracic, dyskinesis, dyskinesia, shoulder athlete, or overhead athlete were included. Studies that did not include prevalence data for scapular dyskinesis were excluded. Study methodological quality was evaluated using the modified Coleman methodology score. Descriptive statistics and 2-proportion 2-tailed z-tests were used to compare the reported prevalence of scapular dyskinesis between overhead and nonoverhead athletes.

Results:

Twelve studies were analyzed including 1401 athletes (1257 overhead and 144 nonoverhead; mean age, 24.4 ± 7.1 years; 78% men). All the studies were evidence level 2 (33%) or level 3 (67%). The reported prevalence of scapular dyskinesis was significantly (P < .0001) higher in overhead athletes (61%) compared with nonoverhead athletes (33%).

Conclusion:

Scapular dyskinesis was found to have a greater reported prevalence (61%) in overhead athletes compared with nonoverhead athletes (33%).

Clinical Relevance:

Prevalence data for scapular dyskinesis are scarce within the literature. Information on the reported prevalence, laterality, and association with the dominant extremity will allow for better allocation of diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. Recognition and treatment will help athletes to optimize functional performance and decrease the risk of further shoulder injury.

Measurement of active shoulder motion using the Kinect, a commercially available infrared position detection system

BACKGROUND

The shoulder's ability to participate in sports and activities of daily living depends on its active range of motion. Clinical goniometry is of limited utility in rigorously assessing limitation of motion and the effectiveness of treatment. We sought to determine (1) whether a validated position-sensing tool, the Kinect, can enable the objective clinical measurement of shoulder motion and (2) the degree to which active range of motion correlates with patient self-assessed shoulder function.

METHODS

In 10 control subjects, we compared Kinect motion measurements to measurements made on standardized anteroposterior and lateral photographs taken concurrently. In 51 patients, we correlated active motion with the ability to perform the functions of the Simple Shoulder Test (SST).

RESULTS

In controls, Kinect measurements strongly agreed with photographic measurements. In patients, the total SST score was strongly correlated with the range of active abduction. The ability to perform each of the individual SST functions was strongly correlated with active motion. The active motion in well-functioning patient shoulders averaged 155° ± 22° abduction, 159° ± 14° flexion, 76° ± 18° external rotation in abduction, -59° ± 25° internal rotation in abduction, and -3.3 ± 3.7 inches of cross-body adduction, values similar to the control shoulders. Use of the Kinect system was practical in clinical examination rooms, requiring <5 minutes to document the 5 motions in both shoulders.

DISCUSSION

The Kinect provides a clinically practical method for objectively measuring active shoulder motion. Active motion was an important determinant of patient-assessed shoulder function.

Scapular and Shoulder Girdle Muscular Anatomy: Its Role in Periscapular Tendon Transfers

The importance of coordinated, normal scapulothoracic motion in facilitating full, pain-free motion of the shoulder complex has been increasingly studied over the past decade, leading to renewed interest in scapular-based reconstructions to improve shoulder girdle motion through the use of muscle advancements and tendon transfers. This article will review recent advances regarding scapulothoracic motion and the muscular stabilizers of the scapula, focusing on clinical diagnosis and anatomy as it pertains to scapular dyskinesis and common periscapular tendon transfers. Although many of these treatment techniques remain in their infancy and further follow-up is necessary before universal adoption, they provide a novel means of addressing difficult-to-treat and complex shoulder girdle pathologies.

3D scapular orientation on healthy and pathologic subjects using stereoradiographs during arm elevation

BACKGROUND

Alterations of the scapular kinematics in different pathologic conditions have been widely studied. However, results have shown considerable discrepancies concerning the direction and the amplitude of scapular movement. The lack of consistency in the literature probably has several explanations. The purpose of this study was to analyze scapular orientation with the arm at rest and with 90° lateral elevation in healthy and pathologic subjects by use of stereoradiographs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All participants (n = 65) underwent a clinical examination and magnetic resonance imaging of the shoulder to assess rotator cuff status. Participants were separated into 3 groups: healthy, rotator cuff tear (RCT), and RCT and subacromial impingement syndrome (RCT+ SIS). A 3-dimensional model of the scapula was fitted to each low-dose stereoradiograph acquired with the arm at rest and 90° arm elevation.

RESULTS

Orientation of the scapula with the arm at rest was not significantly different between groups. During lateral elevation, scapular orientation was not significantly different between the healthy group and the RCT group. However, upward rotation was significantly reduced in the RCT + SIS group.

CONCLUSION

Alterations of scapular kinematics in symptomatic subjects are multifactorial. We observed a link between clinically assessed subacromial impingement and scapular orientation during lateral elevation of the arm.

Glenohumeral translations during range-of-motion movements, activities of daily living, and sports activities in healthy participants

BACKGROUND

Glenohumeral translations have been mainly investigated during static poses while shoulder rehabilitation exercises, activities of daily living, and sports activities are dynamic. Our objective was to assess glenohumeral translations during shoulder rehabilitation exercises, activities of daily living, and sports activities to provide a preliminary analysis of glenohumeral arthrokinematics in a broad range of dynamic tasks.

METHODS

Glenohumeral translations were computed from trajectories of markers fitted to intracortical pins inserted into the scapula and the humerus. Two participants (P1 and P2) performed full range-of-motion movements including maximum arm elevations and internal-external rotations rehabilitation exercises, six activities of daily living, and five sports activities.

FINDINGS

During range-of-motion movements, maximum upward translation was 7.5mm (P1) and 4.7mm (P2). Upward translation during elevations was smaller with the arm internally (3.6mm (P1) and 2.9mm (P2)) than neutrally (4.2mm (P1) and 3.7mm (P2)) and externally rotated (4.3mm (P1) and 4.3mm (P2)). For activities of daily living and sports activities, only anterior translation during reach axilla for P1 and upward translation during ball throwing for P2 were larger than the translation measured during range-of-motion movements (108% and 114%, respectively).

INTERPRETATION

While previous electromyography-based studies recommended external rotation during arm elevation to minimize upward translation, measures of glenohumeral translations suggest that internal rotation may be better. Similar amplitude of translation during ROM movement and sports activities suggests that large excursions of the humeral head may be caused not only by fast movements, but also by large amplitude movements.

Studying upper-limb kinematics using inertial sensors: a cross-sectional study

Background

In recent years, there has been a great interest in analyzing upper-limb kinematics in order to investigate scapulohumeral rhythm, as its alteration has been associated with shoulder joint complex injuries. The use of inertial sensors is presented as a convenient and portable analysis method for studying kinematics in terms of angular mobility and linear acceleration. The aim of this study was to analyze upper-limbs kinematics in the three anatomical axes, obtained by inertial sensors.

Results

Descriptive graphics of analytical tasks performed were obtained. The main difference in mobility between the scapula and humerus was found in pitch axis for abduction (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\bar{\text{X}}}$$\end{document}X¯ = 107.6°, SD = 9.3°) and flexion (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\bar{\text{X}}}$$\end{document}X¯ = 113.1°, SD = 9.3°).

Conclusion

The use of inertial sensors for human kinematics analysis is favorable. Although this study identified movement patterns, and supports inertial sensors as a useful device to analyze upper-limb kinematics, further studies with subjects with shoulder pathology to establish differences in movement patterns and scapulohumeral rhythm between healthy and pathological shoulders should be carried out.

Massive rotator cuff tears: pathomechanics, current treatment options, and clinical outcomes

Rotator cuff tear size has an important effect on clinical outcomes after repair. Management options for massive rotator cuff tears are numerous, and selection of the most appropriate treatment method for individual patients can be a challenge. An understanding of the pathomechanics, treatment, and clinical outcomes in patients with massive rotator cuff tears can serve as a guide for clinical decision-making. The purpose of this article was to review treatment options and clinical outcomes for the management of massive rotator cuff tears.

A Reconfigurable High-Speed Stereo-Radiography System for Sub-Millimeter Measurement of In Vivo Joint Kinematics

Relative motions within normal and pathological joints of the human body can occur on the sub-millimeter and sub-degree scale. Dynamic radiography can be used to create a rapid sequence of images from which measurements of bone motion can be extracted, but available systems have limited speed and accuracy, limit normal subject movement, and do not easily integrate into existing traditional motion capture laboratories. A high-speed stereo radiography (HSSR) system is described that addresses these limitations. The custom radiography system was placed on a standalone reconfigurable gantry structure designed to allow freedom of subject movement while integrating into an existing motion capture laboratory. Validation of the system and measurement of knee kinematics of subjects during gait confirmed the ability to record joint motion with high accuracy and high-speed.

Studying Upper-Limb Kinematics Using Inertial Sensors Embedded in Mobile Phones

BACKGROUND

In recent years, there has been a great interest in analyzing upper-limb kinematics. Inertial measurement with mobile phones is a convenient and portable analysis method for studying humerus kinematics in terms of angular mobility and linear acceleration.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this analysis was to study upper-limb kinematics via mobile phones through six physical properties that correspond to angular mobility and acceleration in the three axes of space.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study recruited healthy young adult subjects. Humerus kinematics was studied in 10 young adults with the iPhone4. They performed flexion and abduction analytical tasks. Mobility angle and lineal acceleration in each of its axes (yaw, pitch, and roll) were obtained with the iPhone4. This device was placed on the right half of the body of each subject, in the middle third of the humerus, slightly posterior. Descriptive statistics were calculated.

RESULTS

Descriptive graphics of analytical tasks performed were obtained. The biggest range of motion was found in pitch angle, and the biggest acceleration was found in the y-axis in both analytical tasks. Focusing on tridimensional kinematics, bigger range of motion and acceleration was found in abduction (209.69 degrees and 23.31 degrees per second respectively). Also, very strong correlation was found between angular mobility and linear acceleration in abduction (r=.845) and flexion (r=.860).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of an iPhone for humerus tridimensional kinematics is feasible. This supports use of the mobile phone as a device to analyze upper-limb kinematics and to facilitate the evaluation of the patient.