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40 Years of RAS-A Historic Overview. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12050681. [PMID: 34062774 PMCID: PMC8147265 DOI: 10.3390/genes12050681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been over forty years since the isolation of the first human oncogene (HRAS), a crucial milestone in cancer research made possible through the combined efforts of a few selected research groups at the beginning of the 1980s. Those initial discoveries led to a quantitative leap in our understanding of cancer biology and set up the onset of the field of molecular oncology. The following four decades of RAS research have produced a huge pool of new knowledge about the RAS family of small GTPases, including how they regulate signaling pathways controlling many cellular physiological processes, or how oncogenic mutations trigger pathological conditions, including developmental syndromes or many cancer types. However, despite the extensive body of available basic knowledge, specific effective treatments for RAS-driven cancers are still lacking. Hopefully, recent advances involving the discovery of novel pockets on the RAS surface as well as highly specific small-molecule inhibitors able to block its interaction with effectors and/or activators may lead to the development of new, effective treatments for cancer. This review intends to provide a quick, summarized historical overview of the main milestones in RAS research spanning from the initial discovery of the viral RAS oncogenes in rodent tumors to the latest attempts at targeting RAS oncogenes in various human cancers.
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Suguro M, Numano T, Kawabe M, Doi Y, Imai N, Mera Y, Tamano S. Lung Tumor Induction by 26-week Dermal Application of 1,2-Dichloroethane in CB6F1-Tg rasH2 Mice. Toxicol Pathol 2017; 45:427-434. [DOI: 10.1177/0192623317701003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Short-term alternatives to traditional 2-year carcinogenic studies in rodents are being actively pursued. Recently, a 26-week short-term carcinogenicity study using CB6F1-Tg rasH2@Jcl (rasH2) mice has become a worldwide standard for the evaluation of chemical carcinogenesis. However, an acceptable short-term carcinogenic study model for dermally applied products is still lacking. To investigate the suitability of using the rasH2 mouse to test carcinogenic potential, 1,2-dichloroethane (1,2-DCE) was dermally applied to rasH2 mice: 1,2-DCE is a known carcinogen that causes lung bronchiolo-alveolar adenomas and adenocarcinomas when administered topically, orally, or by inhalation exposure; 1,2-DCE at a dose level of 126 mg/mouse in 200 μl acetone or acetone alone (vehicle control) was applied to the dorsal skin of 10 mice of each sex 3 times a week for 26 weeks. As a positive control, 10 mice of each sex received a single intraperitoneal injection of 75 mg/kg of N-methyl- N-nitrosourea. Bronchiolo-alveolar adenomas and adenocarcinomas were significantly increased in 1,2-DCE-treated rasH2 mice of both sexes, and bronchiolo-alveolar hyperplasias were significantly increased in female mice. Overall, almost all mice of each sex developed adenomas and/or adenocarcinomas with 100% of female rasH2 mice developing bronchiolo-alveolar adenocarcinomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayuko Suguro
- DIMS Institute of Medical Science, Inc., Ichinomiya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Takamasa Numano
- DIMS Institute of Medical Science, Inc., Ichinomiya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Mayumi Kawabe
- DIMS Institute of Medical Science, Inc., Ichinomiya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yuko Doi
- DIMS Institute of Medical Science, Inc., Ichinomiya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Norio Imai
- DIMS Institute of Medical Science, Inc., Ichinomiya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yukinori Mera
- DIMS Institute of Medical Science, Inc., Ichinomiya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Seiko Tamano
- DIMS Institute of Medical Science, Inc., Ichinomiya, Aichi, Japan
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Ettlin RA, Kuroda J, Plassmann S, Hayashi M, Prentice DE. Successful drug development despite adverse preclinical findings part 2: examples. J Toxicol Pathol 2010; 23:213-34. [PMID: 22272032 PMCID: PMC3234630 DOI: 10.1293/tox.23.213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2010] [Accepted: 09/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
To illustrate the process of addressing adverse preclinical findings (APFs) as
outlined in the first part of this review, a number of cases with unexpected APF
in toxicity studies with drug candidates is discussed in this second part. The
emphasis is on risk characterization, especially regarding the mode of action
(MoA), and risk evaluation regarding relevance for man. While severe APFs such
as retinal toxicity may turn out to be of little human relevance, minor findings
particularly in early toxicity studies, such as vasculitis, may later pose a
real problem. Rodents are imperfect models for endocrine APFs, non-rodents for
human cardiac effects. Liver and kidney toxicities are frequent, but they can
often be monitored in man and do not necessarily result in early termination of
drug candidates. Novel findings such as the unusual lesions in the
gastrointestinal tract and the bones presented in this review can be difficult
to explain. It will be shown that well known issues such as phospholipidosis and
carcinogenicity by agonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors
(PPAR) need to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. The latter is of particular
interest because the new PPAR α and dual α/γ agonists resulted in a change of
the safety paradigm established with the older PPAR α agonists. General
toxicologists and pathologists need some understanding of the principles of
genotoxicity and reproductive toxicity testing. Both types of preclinical
toxicities are major APF and clinical monitoring is difficult, generally leading
to permanent use restrictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A. Ettlin
- Ettlin Consulting Ltd., 14 Mittelweg, 4142 Muenchenstein,
Switzerland
| | - Junji Kuroda
- KISSEI Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., 2320-1 Maki, Hotaka, Azumino,
Nagano 399-8305, Japan
| | - Stephanie Plassmann
- PreClinical Safety (PCS) Consultants Ltd., 7 Gartenstrasse, 4132
Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Makoto Hayashi
- Biosafety Research Center, Foods, Drugs, and Pesticides (BSRC),
582-2 Shioshinden, Iwata, Shizuoka 437-1213, Japan
| | - David E. Prentice
- PreClinical Safety (PCS) Consultants Ltd., 7 Gartenstrasse, 4132
Muttenz, Switzerland
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Extremely weak tumor-promoting effect of troglitazone on splenic hemangiosarcomas in rasH2 mice induced by urethane. Arch Toxicol 2008; 82:771-7. [PMID: 18465119 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-008-0293-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2007] [Accepted: 03/03/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
To examine the tumor-promoting effect of troglitazone (TRG), a novel thiazolidinedione insulin-sensitizing agent, on splenic hemangiosarcomas in rasH2 mice, histopathological and molecular analyses were performed in the spleen of female rasH2 mice fed a diet containing 6,000 or 0 ppm TRG for 16 weeks after 1,000 or 0 mg/kg urethane (UR) initiation. Histopathologically, splenic hemangiosarcomas were observed in the UR-alone and UR + TRG groups, but there was no significant difference in the incidence of splenic hemangiosarcomas between the UR-alone and UR+TRG groups. There were increasing tendencies in the number of positive cells for anti-PCNA antibody and gene expression in the UR + TRG group, but such a change was not statistically significant as compared to that in the UR-alone group. The gene expressions of VEGF, VEGFR1, VEGFC, VEGFR2 and Tie2 related to angiogenesis; c-fos related to MAPK cascade activation; and cyclin D1 related to cell cycle in the UR-alone and UR + TRG groups were significantly higher than those in the untreated control group. However, only the Tie2 gene in the UR + TRG group was significantly increased as compared to that in the UR-alone group. These results suggest that the vascular tumor-promoting activity of TRG in rasH2 mice is extremely low in the present experimental condition and a part of the gene related to angiogenesis probably contributes to the promotion of splenic hemangiosarcomas in rasH2 mice given TRG.
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Jin M, Takahashi M, Moto M, Muguruma M, Ito K, Watanabe K, Kenmochi Y, Kono T, Hasumi K, Mitsumori K. Carcinogenic susceptibility of rasH2 mice to troglitazone. Arch Toxicol 2007; 81:883-94. [PMID: 17569031 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-007-0218-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Accepted: 05/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
To evaluate the carcinogenicity of troglitazone in rasH2 mice, 7-week-old male and female rasH2 mice were fed a diet containing 0, 3,000 or 6,000 ppm troglitazone for 26 weeks. An increased tendency in the incidence of vascular tumors was observed in females of the 6,000 ppm group. The preliminary analysis using a high-density oligonucleotide microarray on a splenic hemangiosarcoma of a high dose female that could be obtained as a fresh sample showed that several genes related to the ras/MAPK pathway activation, angiogenesis, cell cycle and cell multiplication were up-regulated. In addition, most of the genes up-regulated were confirmed by the reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). These results may suggest that the carcinogenic susceptibility of rasH2 mice to troglitazone is relatively low and up-regulations of the ras/MAPK pathway and angiogenesis-related genes are probably involved in the production of splenic hemangiosarcomas in rasH2 mice given troglitazone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meilan Jin
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
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Muto S, Katsuki M, Horie S. Rapid induction of skin tumors in human but not mouse c-Ha-ras proto-oncogene transgenic mice by chemical carcinogenesis. Cancer Sci 2006; 97:842-7. [PMID: 16805855 PMCID: PMC11158362 DOI: 10.1111/j.1349-7006.2006.00256.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The rasH2 transgenic mice carry human c-Ha-ras proto-oncogene, and are highly susceptible to chemical carcinogenesis. Previous studies showed that the mutation of c-Ha-ras induced by DMBA in the tumors of rasH2 were detected only in transgenes. To examine if the difference between the codons of the c-Ha-ras gene in human and mouse contributed to the tissue-specific sensitivity to DMBA, we generated a line of transgenic mice, mras, carrying mouse c-Ha-ras genome with its own promoter. Western blot analysis showed that the protein expression of H-RAS in the skin was increased in both rasH2 and mras compared with wild-type. Chemical skin carcinogenesis was induced by DMBA and TPA. In rasH2 mice, the latency of tumor formation was shorter than wild-type littermates. Both the number and the volume of skin tumors were increased in rasH2 than those of wild-type. However, in mras mice, enhancement of tumor formation was not observed as compared with wild-type. The mean number of tumors and the latency of tumor development was almost the same between mras and wild-type littermates. Mutational analysis showed only A to T transversion in human c-Ha-ras transgenes at codon 61 but not in murine endogenous c-Ha-ras gene in the tumors of rasH2. In the tumors of wild-type littermates and mras, A to T transversion in murine c-Ha-ras at codon 61 were detected. These results indicate that the differences in the codon of the c-Ha-ras gene between mouse and human might contribute to the tissue-specific sensitivity of DMBA.
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MESH Headings
- 9,10-Dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene/toxicity
- Animals
- Base Sequence
- Blotting, Western
- Carcinogens/toxicity
- DNA Mutational Analysis
- Genes, ras/genetics
- Humans
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Neoplasms, Squamous Cell/chemically induced
- Neoplasms, Squamous Cell/genetics
- Neoplasms, Squamous Cell/pathology
- Oncogene Protein p21(ras)/biosynthesis
- Point Mutation
- Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Promoter Regions, Genetic
- Proto-Oncogene Mas
- Pyridines/toxicity
- Skin Neoplasms/chemically induced
- Skin Neoplasms/genetics
- Skin Neoplasms/pathology
- Species Specificity
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoru Muto
- Department of Urology, Teikyo University, 2-11-1, Kaga, Tokyo 173-8605, Japan
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Morimura K, Kang JS, Wei M, Wanibuchi H, Tsuda H, Fukushima S. Lack of urinary bladder carcinogenicity of sodium L-ascorbate in human c-Ha-ras proto-oncogene transgenic rats. Toxicol Pathol 2005; 33:764-7. [PMID: 16316941 DOI: 10.1080/01926230500416336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Sodium L-ascorbate (Na-AsA) is widely known to be a tumor promoter of rat bladder carcinogenesis but tests negative in standard 2-year bioassays. In the present study, bladder-cancer-susceptible transgenic rats designated Hras128 were used to further examine the tumorigenicity of Na-AsA. A total of 40 7-week-old male transgenic (Tg) and 42 littermate nontransgenic (Non-tg) rats were divided into 4 groups and given powdered MF diet with or without 5% Na-AsA for 57 weeks. Tg rats showed significantly short survival compared with Non-tg, independent of Na-AsA treatment. Tg rats treated with Na-AsA showed a slightly higher incidence of carcinoma (29.6%) as compared to those without Na-AsA treatment (15.4%), but this was without statistical significance. Moreover, the total bladder tumor incidences, including papillomas, did not differ statistically (with Na-AsA, 37.0%; without Na-AsA, 30.8%). No bladder tumor was detected in Non-tg rats. Various kinds of other lesions in various organs were noted in Tg rats treated with or without Na-AsA treatment, but no intergroup differences were evident. In conclusion, Na-AsA did not show tumorigenicity in highly bladder-cancer-susceptible transgenic Hras128 rats. These results suggest that Na-AsA is a pure promoter but not a complete carcinogen in rats.
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