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Kumar P, Tiwari S, Uguz S, Li Z, Gonzalez J, Wei L, Samuel RS, Zhang Y, Yang X. Bioaerosols downwind from animal feeding operations: A comprehensive review. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 480:135825. [PMID: 39326148 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Revised: 09/09/2024] [Accepted: 09/11/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024]
Abstract
Bioaerosols originating from animal feeding operations (AFOs) may carry pathogens, allergens, and other hazardous biocomponents, such as endotoxins, posing a potential risk to community health and the environment when dispersed downwind. This review summarizes and synthesizes existing literature data on bioaerosols downwind from three major types of AFOs (swine, poultry, and cattle), covering their composition, concentration, dispersion patterns, measurement methodologies, potential health effects, and mitigation strategies. While many of these bioaerosols are typically detected only near AFOs, evidence indicates that certain bioaerosols, particularly viruses, can travel up to tens of kilometers downwind and remain infectious. Despite the critical importance of these bioaerosols, a refined modeling framework to simulate their transport and fate in downwind air has not yet been developed, nor have source attribution methods been established to track their origins in complex agricultural environments where multiple bioaerosols could co-exist. Therefore, it is imperative to further research downwind bioaerosols from AFOs, including their assessment, modeling, source attribution, and mitigation, to address the public health and environmental challenges associated with animal agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pradeep Kumar
- Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Department, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - Shalini Tiwari
- Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Department, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - Seyit Uguz
- Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Department, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa 16240, Turkey
| | - Zonggang Li
- Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Jose Gonzalez
- Department of Agronomy, Horticulture, and Plant Science, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - Lin Wei
- Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Department, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - Ryan S Samuel
- Department of Animal Science, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - Yuanhui Zhang
- Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Xufei Yang
- Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Department, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA.
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Sources of Airborne Endotoxins in Ambient Air and Exposure of Nearby Communities—A Review. ATMOSPHERE 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos9100375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Endotoxin is a bioaerosol component that is known to cause respiratory effects in exposed populations. To date, most research focused on occupational exposure, whilst much less is known about the impact of emissions from industrial operations on downwind endotoxin concentrations. A review of the literature was undertaken, identifying studies that reported endotoxin concentrations in both ambient environments and around sources with high endotoxin emissions. Ambient endotoxin concentrations in both rural and urban areas are generally below 10 endotoxin units (EU) m−3; however, around significant sources such as compost facilities, farms, and wastewater treatment plants, endotoxin concentrations regularly exceeded 100 EU m−3. However, this is affected by a range of factors including sampling approach, equipment, and duration. Reported downwind measurements of endotoxin demonstrate that endotoxin concentrations can remain above upwind concentrations. The evaluation of reported data is complicated due to a wide range of different parameters including sampling approaches, temperature, and site activity, demonstrating the need for a standardised methodology and improved guidance. Thorough characterisation of ambient endotoxin levels and modelling of endotoxin from pollution sources is needed to help inform future policy and support a robust health-based risk assessment process.
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Particulate matter, endotoxin, and worker respiratory health on large Californian dairies. J Occup Environ Med 2015; 57:79-87. [PMID: 25563544 DOI: 10.1097/jom.0000000000000304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess respiratory exposures and lung function in a cross-sectional study of California dairy workers. METHODS Exposure of 205 dairy and 45 control (vegetable processing) workers to particulate matter and endotoxin was monitored. Pre- and postshift spirometry and interviews were conducted. RESULTS Geometric mean inhalable and PM2.5 concentrations were 812 and 35.3 μg/m3 versus 481.9 and 19.6 μg/m3, respectively, for dairy and control workers. Endotoxin concentrations were 329 EU/m3 or 1122 pmol/m3 and 13.5 EU/m3 or 110 pmol/m3, respectively, for dairy and control workers. In a mixed-effects model, forced vital capacity decreased across a work shift by 24.5 mL (95% confidence interval, -44.7 to -4.3; P = 0.018) with log10 (total endotoxin) and by 22.0 mL (95% confidence interval, -43.2 to -0.08; P = 0.042) per hour worked. CONCLUSIONS Modern California dairy endotoxin exposures and shift length were associated with a mild acute decrease in forced vital capacity.
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Brooks JP, Gerba CP, Pepper IL. Land Application of Organic Residuals. Environ Microbiol 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394626-3.00026-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Paba E, Tranfo G, Corsetti F, Marcelloni AM, Iavicoli S. Indoor exposure to airborne endotoxin: a review of the literature on sampling and analysis methods. INDUSTRIAL HEALTH 2013; 51:237-55. [PMID: 23385433 DOI: 10.2486/indhealth.ms1325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Assessment of exposure to airborne endotoxins has been studied for several years, especially in occupational environments, but a large number of procedures are used for sampling and analysis. This lack of standardization makes it very difficult to compare results and set internationally accepted threshold limit values (TLVs) or occupational exposure limits (OELs) for endotoxin exposure. This paper reviews the methods reported, using advanced bibliographical search techniques: 82 papers published from 2004 to the present were selected to analyze methods for the assessment of human exposure to airborne endotoxins, with particular reference to occupational settings, and to examine their performance and critical points. Only few studies have focused on the standardization of sampling and analysis methods. The European Committee for Standardization Guidelines coincide with the procedures most frequently applied, but this does not guarantee the best results in terms of recovery and reproducibility. The factor that mainly affects endotoxin measurements is the extraction method, the main concern being the presence in the samples of a fraction insoluble in aqueous media. If substantial differences in the proportions of this fraction in different environments are confirmed in the future, the contribution of insoluble endotoxins cannot be neglected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Paba
- Occupational Hygiene Department, INAIL Research, Italy
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Garcia J, Bennett DH, Tancredi DJ, Schenker MB, Mitchell DC, Reynolds SJ, Silva R, Dooley GP, Mehaffy J, Mitloehner FM. Characterization of endotoxin collected on California dairies using personal and area-based sampling methods. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2012; 9:580-591. [PMID: 22946649 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2012.713301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Endotoxin, found in the cell wall of gram negative bacteria, is an important contributor to the biological activity of agriculture particulate matter (PM). We analyzed endotoxin in PM collected on 13 California dairies and from the breathing zone of 226 workers during the summer months of 2008. Two particle size fractions were measured: PM(2.5) and inhalable PM. Recombinant factor C assays were used to analyze biologically active endotoxin, while gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry in tandem was used to quantify total lipopolysaccharide. Biologically active endotoxin concentrations in the inhalable PM size fraction from area-based samples ranged from 11-2095 EU/m(3) and from 45-2061 EU/m(3) for personal samples. Total endotoxin in the inhalable PM size fraction ranged from 75-10,166 pmol/m(3) for area-based samples and 34-11,689 pmol/m(3) for personal samples. Area-based geometric mean concentrations for biologically active endotoxin and total endotoxin in PM(2.5) and inhalable PM size fractions were 3 EU/m(3), 149 EU/m(3), 60 pmol/m(3), and 515 pmol/m(3), respectively. Personal geometric mean concentrations in the inhalable PM size fraction were 334 EU/m(3), and 1178 pmol/m(3). Biologically active and total endotoxin concentration variation was best explained by meteorological data, wind speed, relative humidity, and dairy waste management practices. Differences in endotoxin concentration and composition were found across locations on the dairy.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Garcia
- Department of Public Health Sciences and Center for Health and the Environment, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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Dungan RS, Leytem AB, Bjorneberg DL. Concentrations of airborne endotoxin and microorganisms at a 10,000-cow open-freestall dairy1. J Anim Sci 2011; 89:3300-9. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2011-4002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Steenhof M, Gosens I, Strak M, Godri KJ, Hoek G, Cassee FR, Mudway IS, Kelly FJ, Harrison RM, Lebret E, Brunekreef B, Janssen NAH, Pieters RHH. In vitro toxicity of particulate matter (PM) collected at different sites in the Netherlands is associated with PM composition, size fraction and oxidative potential--the RAPTES project. Part Fibre Toxicol 2011; 8:26. [PMID: 21888644 PMCID: PMC3180259 DOI: 10.1186/1743-8977-8-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 09/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Ambient particulate matter (PM) exposure is associated with respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. To what extent such effects are different for PM obtained from different sources or locations is still unclear. This study investigated the in vitro toxicity of ambient PM collected at different sites in the Netherlands in relation to PM composition and oxidative potential. Method PM was sampled at eight sites: three traffic sites, an underground train station, as well as a harbor, farm, steelworks, and urban background location. Coarse (2.5-10 μm), fine (< 2.5 μm) and quasi ultrafine PM (qUF; < 0.18 μm) were sampled at each site. Murine macrophages (RAW 264.7 cells) were exposed to increasing concentrations of PM from these sites (6.25-12.5-25-50-100 μg/ml; corresponding to 3.68-58.8 μg/cm2). Following overnight incubation, MTT-reduction activity (a measure of metabolic activity) and the release of pro-inflammatory markers (Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha, TNF-α; Interleukin-6, IL-6; Macrophage Inflammatory Protein-2, MIP-2) were measured. The oxidative potential and the endotoxin content of each PM sample were determined in a DTT- and LAL-assay respectively. Multiple linear regression was used to assess the relationship between the cellular responses and PM characteristics: concentration, site, size fraction, oxidative potential and endotoxin content. Results Most PM samples induced a concentration-dependent decrease in MTT-reduction activity and an increase in pro-inflammatory markers with the exception of the urban background and stop & go traffic samples. Fine and qUF samples of traffic locations, characterized by a high concentration of elemental and organic carbon, induced the highest pro-inflammatory activity. The pro-inflammatory response to coarse samples was associated with the endotoxin level, which was found to increase dramatically during a three-day sample concentration procedure in the laboratory. The underground samples, characterized by a high content of transition metals, showed the largest decrease in MTT-reduction activity. PM size fraction was not related to MTT-reduction activity, whereas there was a statistically significant difference in pro-inflammatory activity between Fine and qUF PM. Furthermore, there was a statistically significant negative association between PM oxidative potential and MTT-reduction activity. Conclusion The response of RAW264.7 cells to ambient PM was markedly different using samples collected at various sites in the Netherlands that differed in their local PM emission sources. Our results are in support of other investigations showing that the chemical composition as well as oxidative potential are determinants of PM induced toxicity in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maaike Steenhof
- Division of Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, PO Box 80177, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Allen J, Bartlett K, Graham M, Jackson P. Ambient concentrations of airborne endotoxin in two cities in the interior of British Columbia, Canada. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 13:631-40. [DOI: 10.1039/c0em00235f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Shi J, Mehta AJ, Hang JQ, Zhang H, Dai H, Su L, Eisen EA, Christiani DC. Chronic lung function decline in cotton textile workers: roles of historical and recent exposures to endotoxin. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2010; 118:1620-4. [PMID: 20797932 PMCID: PMC2974703 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0901178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2009] [Revised: 06/25/2010] [Accepted: 08/25/2010] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Long-term occupational exposure to cotton dust that contains endotoxin is associated with chronic respiratory symptoms and excessive decline in forced expiratory volume in 1 sec (FEV1), but the mechanisms of endotoxin-related chronic airflow obstruction remain unclear. OBJECTIVE In the current study, we examined temporal aspects of the exposure-response relationship between airborne endotoxin exposure, longitudinal change in FEV1, and respiratory symptoms in a cohort of Chinese cotton textile workers. METHODS This prospective cohort study followed 447 cotton textile workers from 1981 to 2006. at approximately 5-year intervals. We used a generalized estimating equations approach to model FEV1 level and respiratory symptoms as a function of past exposure (cumulative exposure up to the start of the most recent 5-year survey interval) and cumulative exposure (within the most recent interval) to endotoxins, after adjusting for other covariates. Models were stratified by active versus retired work status and by years employed before the baseline survey (< 5 and > or = 5 years). RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Past exposure to endotoxin was associated with reduced FEV1 level among retired cotton workers. Among all cotton workers, past exposure was more strongly associated with reduced FEV1 for those hired < 5 years before baseline than for those who were hired > or = 5 years after baseline. Recent endotoxin exposure was significantly associated with byssinosis, chronic bronchitis, and chronic cough.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Shi
- Department of Safety Engineering, China Institute of Industrial Relations, Beijing, China
- Department of Environmental Health (Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program), Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Amar J. Mehta
- Department of Environmental Health (Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program), Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jing-qing Hang
- Shanghai Putuo District People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongxi Zhang
- Shanghai Putuo District People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Helian Dai
- Shanghai Putuo District People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Li Su
- Department of Environmental Health (Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program), Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ellen A. Eisen
- Department of Environmental Health (Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program), Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - David C. Christiani
- Department of Environmental Health (Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology Program), Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Tager IB, Lurmann FW, Haight T, Alcorn S, Penfold B, Hammond SK. Temporal and spatial patterns of ambient endotoxin concentrations in Fresno, California. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2010; 118:1490-6. [PMID: 20494854 PMCID: PMC2957934 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0901602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2009] [Accepted: 05/21/2010] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Endotoxins are found in indoor dust generated by human activity and pets, in soil, and adsorbed onto the surfaces of ambient combustion particles. Endotoxin concentrations have been associated with respiratory symptoms and the risk of atopy and asthma in children. OBJECTIVE We characterized the temporal and spatial variability of ambient endotoxin in Fresno/Clovis, California, located in California's Central Valley, to identify correlates and potential predictors of ambient endotoxin concentrations in a cohort of children with asthma [Fresno Asthmatic Children's Environment Study (FACES)]. METHODS Between May 2001 and October 2004, daily ambient endotoxin and air pollutants were collected at the central ambient monitoring site of the California Air Resources Board in Fresno and, for shorter time periods, at 10 schools and indoors and outdoors at 84 residences in the community. Analyses were restricted to May-October, the dry months during which endotoxin concentrations are highest. RESULTS Daily endotoxin concentration patterns were determined mainly by meteorologic factors, particularly the degree of air stagnation. Overall concentrations were lowest in areas distant from agricultural activities. Highest concentrations were found in areas immediately downwind from agricultural/pasture land. Among three other measured air pollutants [fine particulate matter, elemental carbon (a marker of traffic in Fresno), and coarse particulate matter (PMc)], PMc was the only pollutant correlated with endotoxin. Endotoxin, however, was the most spatially variable. CONCLUSIONS Our data support the need to evaluate the spatial/temporal variability of endotoxin concentrations, rather than relying on a few measurements made at one location, in studies of exposure and and respiratory health effects, particularly in children with asthma and other chronic respiratory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ira B Tager
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA.
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Dungan RS. BOARD-INVITED REVIEW: fate and transport of bioaerosols associated with livestock operations and manures. J Anim Sci 2010; 88:3693-706. [PMID: 20622180 PMCID: PMC7109640 DOI: 10.2527/jas.2010-3094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Airborne microorganisms and microbial by-products from intensive livestock and manure management systems are a potential health risk to workers and individuals in nearby communities. This report presents information on zoonotic pathogens in animal wastes and the generation, fate, and transport of bioaerosols associated with animal feeding operations and land applied manures. Though many bioaerosol studies have been conducted at animal production facilities, few have investigated the transport of bioaerosols during the land application of animal manures. As communities in rural areas converge with land application sites, concerns over bioaerosol exposure will certainly increase. Although most studies at animal operations and wastewater spray irrigation sites suggest a decreased risk of bioaerosol exposure with increasing distance from the source, many challenges remain in evaluating the health effects of aerosolized pathogens and allergens in outdoor environments. To improve our ability to understand the off-site transport and diffusion of human and livestock diseases, various dispersion models have been utilized. Most studies investigating the transport of bioaerosols during land application events have used a modified Gaussian plume model. Because of the disparity among collection and analytical techniques utilized in outdoor studies, it is often difficult to evaluate health effects associated with aerosolized pathogens and allergens. Invaluable improvements in assessing the health effects from intensive livestock practices could be made if standardized bioaerosol collection and analytical techniques, as well as the use of specific target microorganisms, were adopted.
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Affiliation(s)
- R S Dungan
- Northwest Irrigation and Soils Research Laboratory, ARS, USDA, Kimberly, ID 83341, USA.
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