Development of 3D-iNET ORION: a novel, pre-clinical, three-dimensional in vitro cell model for modeling human metastatic neuroendocrine tumor of the pancreas

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) of the pancreas are rare neoplasms that present complex challenges to diagnosis and treatment due to their indolent course. The incidence of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors has increased significantly over the past two decades. A limited number of pancreatic neuroendocrine cell lines are currently available for the research. Here, we present 3D-iNET ORION, a novel 3-dimensional (spheroid) cell line, isolated from human pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor liver metastasis. Three-dimensionally grown (3D) cancer cell lines have gained interest over the past years as 3D cancer cell lines better recapitulate the in vivo structure of tumors, and are more suitable for in vitro and in vivo experiments. 3D-iNET ORION cancer cell line showed high potential to form tumorspheres when embedded in Matrigel matrix and expresses synaptophysin and EpCAM. Electron microscopy analysis of cancer cell line proved the presence of dense neurosecretory granules. When xenografted into athymic mice, 3D-iNET ORION cells produce slow-growing tumors, positive for chromogranin and synaptophysin. Human Core Exome Panel Analysis has shown that 3DiNET ORION cell line retains the genetic aberration profile detected in the original tumor. In conclusion, our newly developed neuroendocrine cancer cell line can be considered as a new research tool for in vitro and in vivo experiments.

Paraneoplastic syndromes: A focus on pathophysiology and supportive care

DISCLAIMER

In an effort to expedite the publication of articles, AJHP is posting manuscripts online as soon as possible after acceptance. Accepted manuscripts have been peer-reviewed and copyedited, but are posted online before technical formatting and author proofing. These manuscripts are not the final version of record and will be replaced with the final article (formatted per AJHP style and proofed by the authors) at a later time.

PURPOSE

This article aims to increase awareness of, outline pathophysiology for, and offer guidance on supportive care strategies for specific endocrine, neurological, and immunological syndromes associated with paraneoplastic syndromes (PNSs).

SUMMARY

PNS refers to remote effects that cannot be attributed to the direct or invasive effects of a malignancy. These syndromes are considered clinically important because they may provide early recognition, diagnosis, and management of the malignancy in a timely manner. Many of their presenting symptoms such as ectopic Cushing's syndrome, hypercalcemia of malignancy (HCM), syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH), neurological dysfunctions, and paraneoplastic autoimmune thrombocytopenia overlap with those of nonneoplastic disorders, yet their pathogenesis and responses to treatment differ. Treatment for ectopic Cushing's syndrome due to a PNS consists of treatment of the underlying malignancy and its comorbidities. Drug therapies may include ketoconazole, mitotane, metyrapone, somatostatin analogs, and dopamine agonists. Hypercalcemia may be classified into cases with parathyroid hormone (PTH)-dependent causes or PTH-independent causes such as HCM, in which osteoclast inhibitors may be deployed. Treatments of PNS-mediated SIADH include treatment of the underlying malignancy and strategies to increase serum sodium levels. Amifampridine is now considered the first-line agent for paraneoplastic Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome, whereas steroids, intravenous immune globulin, thrombopoietin receptor agonists (eg, romiplostim, eltrombopag, and avatrombopag), fostamatinib, and rituximab may find their niche in treatment of PNS-mediated autoimmune thrombocytopenia.

CONCLUSION

Supportive care for PNSs lends opportunities to pharmacists to add quality, value, and safety.

Vitamin D deficiency and tumor aggressiveness in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors

PURPOSE

Data regarding vitamin D status in patients affected by gastroenteropancreatic (GEP) neuroendocrine tumor (NET) are limited and often showing contrasting results. The aim of the study was to evaluate the incidence of vitamin D deficiency (<20 ng/mL) in GEP-NET patients and compare the 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels with clinicopathological parameters and clinical outcome.

METHODS

A retrospective cross-sectional study including 75 low grade (G1-G2) GEP-NETs and 123 healthy controls matched for age, sex, and body mass index, was performed.

RESULTS

GEP-NET patients had significantly lower 25(OH)D levels compared to controls (17.9 ± 7.8 vs 24.2 ± 7.7 ng/mL, p < 0.0001). Ileal NETs were associated to lower 25(OH)D levels compared to other primary tumor sites (p = 0.049) and small bowel resection posed a significant increased risk of severe vitamin D deficiency (OR = 2.81, 95% CI = 1.25-3.37, p = 0.018). No correlation with somatostatin analogs treatment was found. 25(OH)D levels were significantly lower in G2 compared to G1 GEP-NETs (15.6 ± 7.8 vs 19.9 ± 7.4 ng/mL, p = 0.016) and in patients with progressive disease (12.6 ± 5.7 ng/mL) compared to those with stable disease (mean 21.5 ± 8.2 ng/mL, p = 0.001) or tumor free after surgery (19.6 ± 7.3 ng/mL, p = 0.002). Patients with vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency had shorter progression-free survival compared to those with sufficiency (p = 0.014), whereas no correlation was found with disease-specific survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Vitamin D deficiency is highly prevalent among GEP-NETs and could be associated with high tumor grade and disease progression. Therefore, the monitoring of 25(OH)D levels is relevant in these patients and vitamin D supplementation should be considered in the management of GEP-NET patients with vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency.

Implications of neuroendocrine tumor and diabetes mellitus on patient outcomes and care: a matched case-control study

Aim:

We aimed to determine the impact of diabetes mellitus (DM) on survival of patients with neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) and of NETs on glycemic control.

Patients & methods:

Patients with newly diagnosed NETs with/without DM were matched 1:1 by age, sex and diagnosis year (2005–2017), and survival compared (Kaplan–Meier and Cox proportional hazards). Mixed models compared hemoglobin A_1c (HbA_1c) and glucose during the year after cancer diagnosis.

Results:

Three-year overall survival was 72% (95% CI: 60–86%) for DM patients versus 80% (95% CI: 70–92%) for non-DM patients (p = 0.82). Hazard ratio was 1.33 (95% CI: 0.56–3.16; p = 0.51); mean DM HbA_1c, 7.3%.

Conclusion:

DM did not adversely affect survival of patients with NET. NET and its treatment did not affect glycemic control.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of diabetes mellitus (DM) on survival of patients with neuroendocrine tumor (NET) and to determine whether NET affected glycemic control. From an institutional cancer registry, 118 patients with NET were identified and grouped by DM (n = 59) or no DM (n = 59). The two groups were matched by age, sex and year of NET diagnosis. DM did not decrease survival, and NET did not significantly affect glycemic control in patients with DM.

Recent advances in the synthesis of (99mTechnetium) based radio-pharmaceuticals

Technetium radionuclide (99mTc) has excellent extent of disintegration properties and occupies a special place in the field of nuclear medicinal chemistry and other health disciplines. Current review describes recent approaches of synthesis in detailed ways for radio-pharmaceuticals of technetium which have been developed to treat and diagnose the biotic disorders. These technetium labeled radio-pharmaceuticals have been established to apply in the field of diagnostic nuclear medicine especially for imaging of different body parts such as brain, heart, kidney, bones and so on, through single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) that is thought to be difficult to image such organs by using common X-ray and MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) techniques. This review highlights and accounts an inclusive study on the various synthetic routes of technetium labeled radio-pharmaceuticals using ligands with various donor atoms such as carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus etc. These compounds can be utilized as next generation radio-pharmaceuticals.

Radiomics of Liver Metastases: A Systematic Review

Simple Summary

Patients with liver metastases can be scheduled for different therapies (e.g., chemotherapy, surgery, radiotherapy, and ablation). The choice of the most appropriate treatment should rely on adequate understanding of tumor biology and prediction of survival, but reliable biomarkers are lacking. Radiomics is an innovative approach to medical imaging: it identifies invisible-to-the-human-eye radiological patterns that can predict tumor aggressiveness and patients outcome. We reviewed the available literature to elucidate the role of radiomics in patients with liver metastases. Thirty-two papers were analyzed, mostly (56%) concerning metastases from colorectal cancer. Even if available studies are still preliminary, radiomics provided effective prediction of response to chemotherapy and of survival, allowing more accurate and earlier prediction than standard predictors. Entropy and homogeneity were the radiomic features with the strongest clinical impact. In the next few years, radiomics is expected to give a consistent contribution to the precision medicine approach to patients with liver metastases.

Abstract

Multidisciplinary management of patients with liver metastases (LM) requires a precision medicine approach, based on adequate profiling of tumor biology and robust biomarkers. Radiomics, defined as the high-throughput identification, analysis, and translational applications of radiological textural features, could fulfill this need. The present review aims to elucidate the contribution of radiomic analyses to the management of patients with LM. We performed a systematic review of the literature through the most relevant databases and web sources. English language original articles published before June 2020 and concerning radiomics of LM extracted from CT, MRI, or PET-CT were considered. Thirty-two papers were identified. Baseline higher entropy and lower homogeneity of LM were associated with better survival and higher chemotherapy response rates. A decrease in entropy and an increase in homogeneity after chemotherapy correlated with radiological tumor response. Entropy and homogeneity were also highly predictive of tumor regression grade. In comparison with RECIST criteria, radiomic features provided an earlier prediction of response to chemotherapy. Lastly, texture analyses could differentiate LM from other liver tumors. The commonest limitations of studies were small sample size, retrospective design, lack of validation datasets, and unavailability of univocal cut-off values of radiomic features. In conclusion, radiomics can potentially contribute to the precision medicine approach to patients with LM, but interdisciplinarity, standardization, and adequate software tools are needed to translate the anticipated potentialities into clinical practice.

Use of octreotide long acting repeatable (LAR) as second-line therapy in advanced neuroendocrine tumors in different clinical settings: an Italian Delphi survey

BACKGROUND

Somatostatin receptor ligands including octreotide LAR are first-line therapy in locally advanced or metastatic NETs that are nonresectable and well differentiated and are recommended as first-line therapy in functioning and in G1/low G2 nonfunctioning NETs. However, several questions remain that are not adequately addressed in current guidelines regarding its use in clinical scenarios in which the tumor progresses. These include use of nonconventional doses or schedules of octreotide LAR in tumors with hormonal symptoms or showing clinical-radiological progression, administration in combination with everolimus, peptide receptor radionuclide therapy, and chemotherapy, following first-line treatment with octreotide LAR.

METHODS

An expert panel was gathered to obtain consensus using Delphi methodology on a series of statements regarding further administration of octreotide LAR after its use in first-line therapy in these settings in patients who experience disease progression.

RESULTS

Consensus was reached for 8 of the 10 statements proposed in the above clinical scenarios; consensus was not achieved for two statements.

CONCLUSIONS

The present statements aim to fill current gaps in treatment guidelines by providing recommendations based on expert consensus in clinical settings in which patients progress following first-line therapy with octreotide LAR.

Survival comparison between primary hepatic neuroendocrine neoplasms and primary pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms and the analysis on prognosis-related factors

BACKGROUND

Primary hepatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (PHNENs) are extremely rare and few articles have compared the prognosis of PHNENs with other neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs). This study aimed to investigate the different prognosis between PHNENs and pancreatic NEN (PanNENs) and evaluate the relevant prognosis-related factors.

METHODS

From January 2012 to October 2016, a total of 44 NENs patients were enrolled and divided into two groups according to the primary tumor location which were named group PHNENs (liver; n = 12) and group PanNENs (pancreas; n = 32). Demographic, clinical characteristics and survival data were compared between the two groups with Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank tests. Prognostic factors were analyzed using the Cox regression model.

RESULTS

The overall survival of group PHNENs and group PanNENs were 25.4 ± 6.7 months and 39.8 ± 3.7 months, respectively (P = 0.037). The cumulative survival of group PanNENs was significantly higher than that of group PHNENs (P = 0.029). Univariate analysis revealed that sex, albumin, total bilirubin, total bile acid, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, α-fetoprotein and carbohydrate antigen 19-9, histological types, treatments and primary tumor site were the prognostic factors. Further multivariate analysis indicated that albumin (P = 0.008), histological types NEC (P = 0.035) and treatments (P = 0.005) were the independent prognostic factors. Based on the histological types, the cumulative survival of patients with well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumor was significant higher than that of patients with poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinoma in group PHNENs (P = 0.022), but not in group PanNENs (P > 0.05). According to the different treatments, patients who received surgery had significantly higher cumulative survival than those with conservative treatment in both groups (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

PHNENs have lower survival compared to PanNENs. Histological types and treatments affect the prognosis. Surgical resection still remains the first line of treatment for resectable lesions and can significantly improve the survival.

Bone marrow edema associated with everolimus

PURPOSE

The case of a patient who experienced bone marrow edema and pain in both feet and a compression fracture of one heel bone after several months of everolimus use is reported.

SUMMARY

A 62-year-old woman with a grade 1 metastatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor (pNET) developed bilateral lower extremity edema and pain approximately 4 months after initiation of treatment with everolimus, an inhibitor of mammalian (or mechanistic) target of rapamycin (mTOR). The patient was referred for orthopedic evaluation, which resulted in diagnosis of bone marrow edema and a compression fracture of the calcaneus on the basis of magnetic resonance imaging results. The case was discussed with a clinical pharmacist, and after an in-depth analysis to rule out potential alternative causes for the patient's edema and pain, everolimus was discontinued. The patient had a full recovery from the presenting symptoms within 10 days of discontinuation of everolimus. Analysis of this case using the adverse drug reaction probability scale of Naranjo et al. yielded a score of 6, indicating a probable adverse reaction to everolimus. A hypothesized mechanism for everolimus-induced bone pain includes marrow edema and hyperemia from reduced intraosseous perfusion, which have been previously reported in association with mTOR inhibitor use.

CONCLUSION

Bone marrow edema developed and a fracture occurred in a patient taking everolimus for a metastatic pNET, with complete resolution of lower extremity swelling and pain within 2 weeks of everolimus discontinuation.

Diabetes and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours: Which interplays, if any?

Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours (PanNETs) represent an uncommon type of pancreatic neoplasm, whose incidence is increasing worldwide. As per exocrine pancreatic cancer, a relationship seems to exist between PanNETs and glycaemic alterations. Diabetes mellitus (DM) or impaired glucose tolerance often occurs in PanNET patients as a consequence of hormonal hypersecretion by the tumour, specifically affecting glucose metabolism, or due to tumour mass effects. On the other hand, pre-existing DM may represent a risk factor for developing PanNETs and is likely to worsen the prognosis of such patients. Moreover, the surgical and/or pharmacological treatment of the tumour itself may impair glucose tolerance, as well as antidiabetic therapies may impact tumour behaviour and patients outcome. Differently from exocrine pancreatic tumours, few data are available for PanNETs as yet on this issue. In the present review, the bidirectional association between glycaemic disorders and PanNETs has been extensively examined, since the co-existence of both diseases in the same individual represents a further challenge for the clinical management of PanNETs.

Pathophysiology of Gastric NETs: Role of Gastrin and Menin

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) were initially identified as a separate entity in the early 1900s as a unique malignancy that secretes bioactive amines. GI-NETs are the most frequent type and represent a unique subset of NETs, because at least 75% of these tumors represent gastrin stimulation of the enterochromaffin-like cell located in the body of the stomach. The purpose of this review is to understand the specific role of gastrin in the generation of Gastric NETs (G-NETs).

RECENT FINDINGS

We review here the origin of enterochromaffin cells gut and the role of hypergastrinemia in gastric enteroendocrine tumorigenesis. We describe generation of the first genetically engineered mouse model of gastrin-driven G-NETs that mimics the human phenotype. The common mechanism observed in both the hypergastrinemic mouse model and human carcinoids is translocation of the cyclin-dependent inhibitor p27^kip to the cytoplasm and its subsequent degradation by the proteasome. Therapies that block degradation of p27^kip, the CCKBR2 gastrin receptor, or gastrin peptide are likely to facilitate treatment.

The management of neuroendocrine tumours: A nutritional viewpoint

Nutritional status in patients with neuroendocrine tumours (NETs), especially of gastroenteropancreatic origin, can be deeply affected by excessive production of gastrointestinal hormones, peptides, and amines, which can lead to malabsorption, diarrhoea, steatorrhea, and altered gastrointestinal motility. Besides, the surgical and/or medical management of NETs can lead to alteration of gastrointestinal secretory, motor, and absorptive functions, with both dietary and nutritional consequences. Indeed, disease-related malnutrition is a frequently encountered yet both underrecognized and understudied clinical phenomenon in patients with NETs, with substantial prognostic and socioeconomic consequences. Most of these conditions can be alleviated by a tailored nutritional approach, also with the aim of improving the efficacy of cancer treatments. In this setting, skilled nutritionists can play a fundamental role in the multidisciplinary health care team in NETs management and their presence should be recommended. The aim of this review is to provide dietary advices for each specific condition in patients with NETs, underlining the importance of a nutritional approach to treat malnutrition in this setting. Further, we will provide preliminary evidence coming from our data on the assessment of nutritional status in a single cohort of patients with NETs.