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Shujaa Edin HY, Al-Haj NA, Rasedee A, Banu Alitheen N, Abdul Kadir A, Wun How C, Sulaiman Rahman H, Al-Shwyeh HA. Recombinant human Erythropoietin enhanced the cytotoxic effects of tamoxifen toward the spheroid MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Saudi J Biol Sci 2021; 28:5214-5220. [PMID: 34466099 PMCID: PMC8381065 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Erythropoietin (EPO) is widely used to treat anemia in patients undergoing chemotherapy for cancers. The main objective of this study was to investigate the effect of rHuEPO on the response of spheroid breast cancer, MCF-7, cells to tamoxifen treatment. The MCF-7 spheroids were treated with 10 mg/mL tamoxifen in combination with either 0, 10, 100 or 200 IU/mL rHuEPO for 24, 48 or 72 h. The viability of the MCF-7 cells was determined using the annexin-V, cell cycle, caspases activation and acridine orange/propidium iodide staining. rHuEPO-tamoxifen combination significantly (p greater than 0.05) increased the number of spheroid MCF-7 cells entering early apoptotic phase after 12 h and late apoptotic phase after 24 h of treatment; primarily the result of the antiproliferative effect tamoxifen. Tamoxifen alone significantly (p < 0.05) increased the caspase-3 and −9 activities in the spheroid MCF-7 cells by 200 to 550% of the control. Combination rHuEPO and tamoxifen produced much lesser effect on the caspase-8 activity. The rHuEPO in the combination treatment had concentration-dependently caused decrease in the caspase activities. rHuEPO-tamoxifen combination markedly increased MCF-7 cells entering the SubG0/G1 phase of the cell cycle by more than 500% of the control, while decreasing those entering the G2 + M and S phases by 50%. After 72 h, the combination treatment produced greater (p < 0.05) change in the SubG0/G1 phase than tamoxifen treatment alone. Morphologically, spheroid MCF-7 cells subjected to combination rHuEPO-tamoxifen treatment showed nuclear condensation and margination, cytoplasmic blebbing, necrosis, and early and late apoptosis. Thus, the study showed that rHuEPO-tamoxifen combination induced apoptosis in the spheroid MCF-7 cells. The apoptotic effect of the rHuEPO-tamoxifen combination treatment on the MCF-7 cells was greater than that produced by tamoxifen alone. The rHuEPO-tamoxifen treatment enhanced the caspase-independent apoptotic effects of tamoxifen on the spheroid MCF-7 cells.
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Key Words
- CC, correlation coefficient
- CV, coefficient of variance
- DG, geometrical mean of diameter
- ECRB, Eppendorf A-4-62 centrifuge rotor 1 MTP buckets
- ESBR, The Eppendorf swing-bucket rotor with tubes rack
- HD, Hanging drop
- Hanging drop
- MCF-7, GMD, geometrical mean diameter
- MCF-7, human breast cell line
- OLT, Overlay technique
- Overlay technique
- Recombinant human erythropoietin
- S, surface area
- Spheroids
- TAM Tamoxifen ULAT, ultra-low adhesive plate
- Tamoxifen
- Ultra-low adhesive plate
- poly-HEMA, Poly 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate
- rHuEPO, Recombinant human erythropoietin
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nagi A Al-Haj
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Sana'a University, Yemen
| | - Abdullah Rasedee
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Chee Wun How
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | | | - Hussah Abdullah Al-Shwyeh
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IAU), Dammam 31441-1982, Saudi Arabia
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Exploring the therapeutic potential of nanostructured lipid carrier approaches to tackling the inherent lacuna of chemotherapeutics and herbal drugs against breast cancer. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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3
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Mohebbi S, Shariatipour M, Shafie B, Amini MM. Encapsulation of tamoxifen citrate in functionalized mesoporous silica and investigation of its release. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Karwasra R, Singh S, Raza K, Sharma N, Varma S. A brief overview on current status of nanomedicines for treatment of pancytopenia: Focusing on chemotherapeutic regime. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2020.102159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Hwang CH. Targeted Delivery of Erythropoietin Hybridized with Magnetic Nanocarriers for the Treatment of Central Nervous System Injury: A Literature Review. Int J Nanomedicine 2020; 15:9683-9701. [PMID: 33311979 PMCID: PMC7726550 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s287456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the incidence of central nervous system injuries has continued to rise, no promising treatments have been elucidated. Erythropoietin plays an important role in neuroprotection and neuroregeneration as well as in erythropoiesis. Moreover, the current worldwide use of erythropoietin in the treatment of hematologic diseases allows for its ready application in patients with central nervous system injuries. However, erythropoietin has a very short therapeutic time window (within 6–8 hours) after injury, and it has both hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic receptors, which exhibit heterogenic and phylogenetic differences. These differences lead to limited amounts of erythropoietin binding to in situ erythropoietin receptors. The lack of high-quality evidence for clinical use and the promising results of in vitro/in vivo models necessitate fast targeted delivery agents such as nanocarriers. Among current nanocarriers, noncovalent polymer-entrapping or polymer-adsorbing erythropoietin obtained by nanospray drying may be the most promising. With the incorporation of magnetic nanocarriers into an erythropoietin polymer, spatiotemporal external magnetic navigation is another area of great interest for targeted delivery within the therapeutic time window. Intravenous administration is the most readily used route. Manufactured erythropoietin nanocarriers should be clearly characterized using bioengineering analyses of the in vivo size distribution and the quality of entrapment or adsorption. Further preclinical trials are required to increase the therapeutic bioavailability (in vivo biological identity alteration, passage through the lung capillaries or the blood brain barrier, and timely degradation followed by removal of the nanocarriers from the body) and decrease the adverse effects (hematological complications, neurotoxicity, and cytotoxicity), especially of the nanocarrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Ho Hwang
- Department of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Chungnam National University Sejong Hospital, Chungnam National University College of Medicine, Sejong, Republic of Korea
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Nguyen CT, Kim CR, Le TH, Koo KI, Hwang CH. Magnetically guided targeted delivery of erythropoietin using magnetic nanoparticles: Proof of concept. Medicine (Baltimore) 2020; 99:e19972. [PMID: 32384447 PMCID: PMC7220084 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000019972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this proof-of-concept study was to demonstrate the targeted delivery of erythropoietin (EPO) using magnetically guided magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs).MNPs consisting of a ferric-ferrous mixture (FeCl3·6H2O and FeCl2·4H2O) were prepared using a co-precipitation method. The drug delivery system (DDS) was manufactured via the spray-drying technique using a nanospray-dryer. The DDS comprised 7.5 mg sodium alginate, 150 mg MNPs, and 1000 IU EPO.Scanning electron microscopy revealed DDS particles no more than 500 nm in size. Tiny particles on the rough surfaces of the DDS particles were composed of MNPs and/or EPO, unlike the smooth surfaces of the only alginate particles. Transmission electron microscopy showed the tiny particles from 5 to 20 nm in diameter. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy revealed DDS peaks characteristic of MNPs as well as of alginate. Thermal gravimetric analysis presented that 50% of DDS weight was lost in a single step around 500°C. The mode size of the DDS particles was approximately 850 nm under in vivo conditions. Standard soft lithography was applied to DDS particles prepared with fluorescent beads using a microchannel fabricated to have one inlet and two outlets in a Y-shape. The fluorescent DDS particles reached only one outlet reservoir in the presence of a neodymium magnet. The neurotoxicity was evaluated by treating SH-SY5Y cells in 48-well plates (1 × 10 cells/well) with 2 μL of a solution containing sodium alginate (0.075 mg/mL), MNPs (1.5 mg/mL), or sodium alginate + MNPs. A cell viability assay kit was used to identify a 93% cell viability after MNP treatment and a 94% viability after sodium alginate + MNP treatment, compared with the control. As for the DDS particle neurotoxicity, a 95% cell viability was noticed after alginate-encapsulated MNPs treatment and a 93% cell viability after DDS treatment, compared with the control.The DDS-EPO construct developed here can be small under in vivo conditions enough to pass through the lung capillaries with showing the high coating efficiency. It can be guided using magnetic control without displaying significant neurotoxicity in the form of solution or particles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chung Reen Kim
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Ulsan University Hospital, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Ulsan
| | - Thi Huong Le
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Ulsan, Ulsan
| | - Kyo-in Koo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Ulsan, Ulsan
| | - Chang Ho Hwang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Ulsan, Ulsan
- Department of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Chungnam National University Sejong Hospital, Chungnam National University College of Medicine, Sejong, Republic of Korea
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Teo GY, Rasedee A, Al-Haj NA, Beh CY, How CW, Rahman HS, Alitheen NB, Rosli R, Abdullah ASH, Ali AS. Effect of fetal bovine serum on erythropoietin receptor expression and viability of breast cancer cells. Saudi J Biol Sci 2019; 27:653-658. [PMID: 32210684 PMCID: PMC6997850 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2019.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 11/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Erythropoietin receptors (EPORs) are present not only in erythrocyte precursors but also in non-hematopoietic cells including cancer cells. In this study, we determined the effect of fetal bovine serum (FBS) in culture medium on the EPOR expression and viability of the estrogen receptor (ER)-positive MCF-7 and ER-negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Using flow cytometry, we showed that the inclusion of 10% FBS in the medium increased the EPOR expressions and viabilities of MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells. The MDA-MB-231 showed greater EPOR expression than MCF-7 cells, suggesting that the presence of ERs on cells is associated with poor expression of EPOR. Culture medium containing 10% FBS also caused increased number of breast cancer cells entering the synthesis phase of the cell cycle. The study also showed that rHuEPO treatment did not affect viability of breast cancer cells. In conclusion, it was shown that the inclusion of FBS in culture medium increased expression of EPOR in breast cancer cells and rHuEPO treatment had no effect on the proliferation of these cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guan-Young Teo
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
| | - Abdullah Rasedee
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
| | - Nagi A Al-Haj
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
| | - Chaw Yee Beh
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
| | - Chee Wun How
- Monash University, 47500 Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Rozita Rosli
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
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Beh CY, Rasedee A, Selvarajah GT, Yazan LS, Omar AR, Foong JN, How CW, Foo JB. Enhanced anti-mammary gland cancer activities of tamoxifen-loaded erythropoietin-coated drug delivery system. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219285. [PMID: 31291309 PMCID: PMC6619690 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanomedicine is an emerging area in the medical field, particularly in the treatment of cancers. Nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) was shown to be a good nanoparticulated carrier for the delivery of tamoxifen (TAM). In this study, the tamoxifen-loaded erythropoietin-coated nanostructured lipid carriers (EPO-TAMNLC) were developed to enhance the anti-cancer properties and targetability of TAM, using EPO as the homing ligand for EPO receptors (EpoRs) on breast cancer tissue cells. Tamoxifen-loaded NLC (TAMNLC) was used for comparison. The LA7 cells and LA7 cell-induced rat mammary gland tumor were used as models in the study. Immunocytochemistry staining showed that LA7 cells express estrogen receptors (ERs) and EpoRs. EPO-TAMNLC and TAMNLC significantly (p<0.05) inhibited proliferation of LA7 in dose- and time-dependent manner. EPO-TAMNLC induced apoptosis and G0/G1 cell cycle arrest of LA7 cells. Both drug delivery systems showed anti-mammary gland tumor properties. At an intravenous dose of 5 mg kg-1 body weight, EPO-TAMNLC and TAMNLC were not toxic to rats, suggesting that both are safe therapeutic compounds. In conclusion, EPO-TAMNLC is not only a unique drug delivery system because of the dual drug-loading feature, but also potentially highly specific in the targeting of breast cancer tissues positive for ERs and EpoRs. The incorporation of TAM into NLC with and without EPO coat had significantly (p<0.05) improved specificity and safety of the drug carriers in the treatment of mammary gland tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaw Yee Beh
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- * E-mail: , (AR); (CYB)
| | - Abdullah Rasedee
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- * E-mail: , (AR); (CYB)
| | | | | | - Abdul Rahman Omar
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Jia Ning Foong
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chee Wun How
- Centre for Pre-University Studies, Faculty of Pharmacy, MAHSA University, Jenjarom, Kuala Langat, Selangor, Malaysia
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Jhi Biau Foo
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Science, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
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Wang X, Yang Y, An Y, Fang G. The mechanism of anticancer action and potential clinical use of kaempferol in the treatment of breast cancer. Biomed Pharmacother 2019; 117:109086. [PMID: 31200254 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2019.109086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2019] [Revised: 06/02/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last century, natural compounds have achieved remarkable achievements in the treatment of tumors through chemotherapy. This inspired scientists to continuously explore anticancer agents from natural compounds. Kaempferol is an ordinary natural compound, the most common flavonoid, which is widely existed in vegetables and fruits. It has been reported to have various anticancer activities, including breast cancer, prostate cancer, bladder cancer, cervical cancer, colon cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, ovarian cancer, leukemia, etc. Meanwhile, we found that there were more reports on breast cancer among these cancers although there are limited clinical studies that have addressed the benefits of kaempferol as an anti-cancer agent for breast cancer treatment. Then we realize that although kaempferol has been reported to have anti-breast cancer effect many times, it is still far from becoming a real anti-breast cancer agent. Therefore, in this review, we talk about the options for improving the anti-breast cancer effect of kaempferol, including various techniques and methods to improve the bioavailability of kaempferol, the idea of combining other compounds to produce synergistic effects, and the possibility of developing kaempferol into a targeted drug delivery system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueni Wang
- Guangxi Zhuang Yao Medicine Center of Engineering and Technology, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, 13 Wuhe Road, Qingxiu District, Nanning, 530200, China.
| | - Yuting Yang
- Guangxi Zhuang Yao Medicine Center of Engineering and Technology, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, 13 Wuhe Road, Qingxiu District, Nanning, 530200, China; Faculty of pharmacy, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, 13 Wuhe Road, Qingxiu District, Nanning, 530200, China.
| | - Yating An
- Department of pharmacy, Tianjin Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated Hospital, 354 North road, Hongqiao District, Tianjin, 300120, China.
| | - Gang Fang
- Guangxi Zhuang Yao Medicine Center of Engineering and Technology, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, 13 Wuhe Road, Qingxiu District, Nanning, 530200, China; Laboratory of Zhuang Medicine Prescriptions Basis and application Research, Guangxi University of Chinese medicine, 179 Mingxiudong Road, Xixiangtang District, Nanning, 530001, China.
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Yue Y, Zhao D, Yin Q. Hyaluronic acid modified nanostructured lipid carriers for transdermal bupivacaine delivery: In vitro and in vivo anesthesia evaluation. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 98:813-820. [PMID: 29571251 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.12.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
For effective transdermal local anesthetic therapy, to reduce the barrier of stratum corneum and improve the antinociceptive effect, hyaluronic acid (HA) modified, bupivacaine (BPV) loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) were designed. HA and linoleic acid (LOA) conjugated propylene glycol (PEG) was synthesized (HA-PEG-LOA). HA-PEG-LOA was added during the preparation process of NLCs, thus LOA was inserted into the NLCs, The physicochemical properties of NLCs, particle size, zeta potential, drug loading capacity, in vitro skin permeation, drug release profiles and in vivo therapeutic effect were evaluated. HA-BPV/NLCs have small particle size of 150?nm, with a zeta potential of ?40?mV. Nearly 90% high drug encapsulation efficiency and good stability were also observed. In vitro release rate of BPV from HA-BPV/NLCs was complying with a sustained behavior until 72?h of study. HA-BPV/NLCs and BPV/NLCs exhibited 2.5 and 1.6 fold of percutaneous penetration improvement than free BPV. BPV loaded NLCs produced a more prolonged antinociceptive effect when compared with free BPV. In vitro and in vivo results pointed out HA modified NLCs have the capability to act as effective drug carriers, thus prolonging and enhancing the anesthetic effect of BPV. The NLCs developed in this study might provide a useful platform for developing a sophisticated dermal delivery system for analgesic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaocun Yue
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining, 272029, Shandong, China
| | - Dandan Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining, 272029, Shandong, China
| | - Qiuwen Yin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining, 272029, Shandong, China.
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S Sibuyi NR, Thovhogi N, Gabuza KB, Meyer MD, Drah M, Onani MO, Skepu A, Madiehe AM, Meyer M. Peptide-functionalized nanoparticles for the selective induction of apoptosis in target cells. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2017. [PMID: 28635372 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2017-0085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM The study developed a prohibitin (PHB) targeted nanotherapy for selective induction of apoptosis in target cells. METHODS Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were bifunctionalized with adipose homing and proapoptotic peptides. The efficacy and mode of cell death induced by the AuNPs were investigated in vitro on three cancer cell lines. RESULTS The antiproliferative activity of PHB-targeted bifunctionalized AuNPs was more pronounced on cells that express the PHB receptor, and demonstrated receptor-mediated targeting and selectivity. The bifunctionalized AuNPs induced cell death by apoptosis. CONCLUSION The PHB-targeted nanotherapy under study could potentially be used for treatment of diseases that are characterized by overexpression of PHB. As such, further investigations will be conducted in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Remaliah S Sibuyi
- DST/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre (NIC), Biolabels Unit, Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape (UWC), Private Bag X17, Bellville, 7535, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Ntevheleni Thovhogi
- DST/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre (NIC), Biolabels Unit, Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape (UWC), Private Bag X17, Bellville, 7535, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Kwazikwakhe B Gabuza
- DST/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre (NIC), Biolabels Unit, Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape (UWC), Private Bag X17, Bellville, 7535, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Miche D Meyer
- DST/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre (NIC), Biolabels Unit, Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape (UWC), Private Bag X17, Bellville, 7535, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Mustafa Drah
- DST/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre (NIC), Biolabels Unit, Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape (UWC), Private Bag X17, Bellville, 7535, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Martin O Onani
- Organometallics & Nanomaterials, Department of Chemistry, UWC, Private Bag X17, Bellville, 7535, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Amanda Skepu
- DST/Mintek NIC, Biolabels Unit, Advanced Materials Division, Mintek, Private Bag X3015, Randburg, 2125, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Abram M Madiehe
- DST/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre (NIC), Biolabels Unit, Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape (UWC), Private Bag X17, Bellville, 7535, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Mervin Meyer
- DST/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre (NIC), Biolabels Unit, Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape (UWC), Private Bag X17, Bellville, 7535, Western Cape, South Africa
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