Inhibition of human prostate cancer (PC-3) cells and targeting of PC-3-derived prostate cancer stem cells with koenimbin, a natural dietary compound from Murraya koenigii (L) Spreng

Unveiling the potential of isatin-grafted phenyl-1,2,3-triazole derivatives as dual VEGFR-2/STAT-3 inhibitors: Design, synthesis and biological assessments

The use of VEGFR-2 inhibitors as a stand-alone treatment has proven to be ineffective in clinical trials due to the robustness of cellular response loops that lead to treatment resistance when only targeting VEGFR-2. The over-activation of the signal transducer/activator of transcription 3 (STAT-3) is expected to significantly impact treatment failure and resistance to VEGFR-2 inhibitors. In this study, we propose the concept of combined inhibition of VEGFR-2 and STAT-3 to combat induced STAT-3-mediated resistance to VEGFR-2 inhibition therapy. To explore this, we synthesized new isatin-grafted phenyl-1,2,3-triazole derivatives "6a-n" and "9a-f". Screening on PANC1 and PC3 cancer cell lines revealed that compounds 6b, 6 k, 9c, and 9f exhibited sub-micromolar ranges. The most promising molecules, 6b, 6 k, 9c, and 9f, demonstrated the highest inhibition when tested as dual inhibitors on VEGFR-2 (with IC50 range 53-82 nM, respectively) and STAT-3 (with IC50 range 5.63-10.25 nM). In particular, triazole 9f showed the best results towards both targets. Inspired by these findings, we investigated whether 9f has the ability to trigger apoptosis in prostate cancer PC3 cells via the assessment of the expression levels of the apoptotic markers Caspase-8, Bcl-2, Bax, and Caspase-9. Treatment of the PC3 cells with compound 9f significantly inhibited the protein expression levels of VEGFR-2 and STAT-3 kinases compared to the control.

Targeting Cervical Cancer Stem Cells by Phytochemicals

Cervical cancer (CaCx) poses a significant global health challenge, ranking as the fourth most common cancer among women worldwide. Despite the emergence of advanced treatment strategies, recurrence remains a bottleneck in favorable treatment outcomes and contributes to poor prognosis. The chemo- or radio-therapy resistance coupled with frequent relapse of more aggressive tumors are some key components that contribute to CaCx-related mortality. The onset of therapy resistance and relapse are attributed to a small subset of, slow-proliferating Cancer Stem Cells (CSC). These CSCs possess the properties of tumorigenesis, self-renewal, and multi-lineage differentiation potential. Because of slow cycling, these cells maintain themselves in a semi-quiescent stage and protect themselves from different anti-proliferative anti-cancer drugs. Keeping in view recent advances in their phenotypic and functional characterization, the feasibility of targeting CSC and associated stem cell signaling bears a strong translational value. The presence of CSC has been reported in CaCx (CCSC) which remains a forefront area of research. However, we have yet to identify clinically useful leads that can target CCSC. There is compelling evidence that phytochemicals, because of their advantages over synthetic anticancer drugs, could emerge as potential therapeutic leads to target these CCSCs. The present article examined the potential of phytochemicals with reported anti-CSC properties and evaluated their future in preclinical and clinical applications against CaCx.

Thymoquinone Potentially Modulates the Expression of Key Onco- and Tumor Suppressor miRNAs in Prostate and Colon Cancer Cell Lines: Insights from PC3 and HCT-15 Cells

Prostate cancer (PC) and colon cancer significantly contribute to global cancer-related morbidity and mortality. Thymoquinone (TQ), a naturally occurring phytochemical found in black cumin, has shown potential as an anticancer compound. This study aimed to investigate the effects of TQ on the expression profile of key tumor suppressor and onco-suppressor miRNAs in PC3 prostate cancer cells and HCT-15 colon cancer cells. Cell viability assays revealed that TQ inhibited the growth of both cell lines in a dose-dependent manner, with IC50 values of approximately 82.59 μM for HCT-15 and 55.83 μM for PC3 cells. Following TQ treatment at the IC50 concentrations, miRNA expression analysis demonstrated that TQ significantly downregulated miR-21-5p expression in HCT-15 cells and upregulated miR-34a-5p, miR-221-5p, miR-17-5p, and miR-21-5p expression in PC3 cells. However, no significant changes were observed in the expression levels of miR-34a-5p and miR-200a-5p in HCT-15 cells. The current findings suggest that TQ might exert its antiproliferative effects by modulating specific tumor suppressor and onco-suppressor miRNAs in prostate and colon cancer cells. Further investigations are warranted to elucidate the precise underlying mechanisms and to explore the therapeutic potential of TQ in cancer treatment. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report regarding the effect of TQ on the miRNA expression profile in colon and prostate cancer cell lines.

Therapeutic vulnerabilities of cancer stem cells and effects of natural products

Covering: 1995 to 2022Tumors possess both genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity leading to the survival of subpopulations post-treatment. The term cancer stem cells (CSCs) describes a subpopulation that is resistant to many types of chemotherapy and which also possess enhanced migratory and anchorage-independent growth capabilities. These cells are enriched in residual tumor material post-treatment and can serve as the seed for future tumor re-growth, at both primary and metastatic sites. Elimination of CSCs is a key goal in enhancing cancer treatment and may be aided by application of natural products in conjunction with conventional treatments. In this review, we highlight molecular features of CSCs and discuss synthesis, structure-activity relationships, derivatization, and effects of six natural products with anti-CSC activity.

Betulin Acid Ester Derivatives Inhibit Cancer Cell Growth by Inducing Apoptosis through Caspase Cascade Activation: A Comprehensive In Vitro and In Silico Study

Betulin, or naturally occurring triterpene, possesses promising antiproliferative activity. To further explore this potential, thirty-eight betulin acid ester derivatives modified at the C-28 position were tested for antitumor activities. Four human cancer cell lines, MV4-11 (leukemia), A549 (lung), PC-3 (prostate), MCF-7 (breast) as well as the normal BALB/3T3 (mouse fibroblasts) cell line were examined using MTT and SRB assays. A few derivatives exhibited strong antiproliferative activity with IC₅₀ values between 2 and 5 µM. Subsequent mechanistic studies revealed that some derivatives induced apoptosis by inducing caspase-3/7 activity. A strong structure-activity correlation of tested compounds has been proposed along with experimental and in silico pharmacokinetic properties.

Antiproliferative Action of Methanolic Petiole Extract of Eichhornia Crassipes on Human Prostate Adenocarcinoma Cell Line: An In Vitro Study

BACKGROUND

An increasing number of people are turning to herbal medicines in their search for innovative pharmaceuticals since they are effective treatments for a wide variety of conditions and traditional herbs are rich in bioactive chemicals. In this study, we looked at whether or not a petiole extract of Eichhornia crassipes preserved in methanol inhibited the proliferation of prostate cancer (PC3) cell lines.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lakes in Ezhikkara, Ernakulum, Kerala, were the source of E. crassipes. Soxhlet extraction was used to create the extract. 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was used to determine the cell viability of methanolic petiole extract at various concentrations. Mean and standard deviation was used to determine absorbance scores. Utilizing probit analysis, we determined the IC50 value. The descriptive statistics to measure the percent of viable cells along with the regression equation were calculated using SPSS.

RESULTS

It has been shown that the methanol extract significantly impacted PC3 cell lines' capacity to survive. It was also determined that increasing the medication concentration resulted in a decrease in cell viability. The percentage of living cells was measured after being exposed to methanol extracts at concentrations of 12.5 μg/ml, 25 μg/ml, 50 μg/ml, 100 μg/ml, and 200 μg/ml, and found to be 95.13, 85.88, 76.12, 64.33, and 53.62 percent, respectively. With IC50 values of 199.488 g/ml, it was shown that methanolic petiole extracts of E. crassipes are cytotoxic. Using probit analysis, we determined that the regression equation is y = -0.2051x + 90.915, with an R2 value of 0.893.

CONCLUSION

As a result of its chemotherapeutic properties, the E. crassipes petiole extract has the potential to be employed in therapeutic applications, with the ultimate goal of bettering prostate cancer management practices and clinical results by drastically lowering cell viability. The study's results may pave the way for fresh chemotherapeutic approaches to be developed for the treatment of androgen-independent prostate cancer.

The Antileukemic and Anti-Prostatic Effect of Aeroplysinin-1 Is Mediated through ROS-Induced Apoptosis via NOX Activation and Inhibition of HIF-1a Activity

Aeroplysinin-1 is a brominated isoxazoline alkaloid that has exhibited a potent antitumor cell effect in previous reports. We evaluated the cytotoxicity of aeroplysinin-1 against leukemia and prostate cancer cells in vitro. This marine alkaloid inhibited the cell proliferation of leukemia Molt-4, K562 cells, and prostate cancer cells Du145 and PC-3 with IC₅₀ values of 0.12 ± 0.002, 0.54 ± 0.085, 0.58 ± 0.109 and 0.33 ± 0.042 µM, respectively, as shown by the MTT assay. Furthermore, in the non-malignant cells, CCD966SK and NR8383, its IC₅₀ values were 1.54 ± 0.138 and 6.77 ± 0.190 μM, respectively. In a cell-free system, the thermal shift assay and Western blot assay verified the binding affinity of aeroplysinin-1 to Hsp90 and Topo IIα, which inhibited their activity. Flow cytometry analysis showed that the cytotoxic effect of aeroplysinin-1 is mediated through mitochondria-dependent apoptosis induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS interrupted the cellular oxidative balance by activating NOX and inhibiting HIF-1α and HO-1 expression. Pretreatment with N-acetylcysteine (NAC) reduced Apl-1-induced mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and preserved the expression of NOX, HO-1, and HIF-1a. Our findings indicated that aeroplysinin-1 targeted leukemia and prostate cancer cells through multiple pathways, suggesting its potential application as an anti-leukemia and prostate cancer drug lead.

Single-Cell Chemistry of Photoactivatable Platinum Anticancer Complexes

The Pt(IV) prodrug trans, trans, trans-[Pt(pyridine)2(N3)2(OH)2] (Pt1) and its coumarin derivative trans, trans, trans-[Pt(pyridine)2(N3)2(OH)(coumarin-3-carboxylate)] (Pt2) are promising agents for photoactivated chemotherapy. These complexes are inert in the dark but release Pt(II) species and radicals upon visible light irradiation, resulting in photocytotoxicity toward cancer cells. Here, we have used synchrotron techniques to investigate the in-cell behavior of these prodrugs and visualize, for the first time, changes in cellular morphology and Pt localization upon treatment with and without light irradiation. We show that photoactivation of Pt2 induces remarkable cellular damage with extreme alterations to multiple cellular components, including formation of vacuoles, while also significantly increasing the cellular accumulation of Pt species compared to dark conditions. X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) measurements in cells treated with Pt2 indicate only partial reduction of the prodrug upon irradiation, highlighting that phototoxicity in cancer cells may involve not only Pt(II) photoproducts but also photoexcited Pt(IV) species.

Nutritive Importance and Therapeutics Uses of Three Different Varieties (Murraya koenigii, Micromelum minutum, and Clausena indica) of Curry Leaves: An Updated Review

Murraya koenigii (M. koenigii), Micromelum minutum (M. minutum), and Clausena indica (C. indica) are three varieties of curry leaves in the family Rutaceae. They have been widely used in Ayurvedic medicine worldwide in the treatment and prevention of various diseases. Earlier findings provide strong evidence to support the three curry leaf species' potent pharmaceutical and biological effects, including antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor activities. Various parts of these plants, such as leaves, seeds, flowers, and fruit, contain constituents responsible for the modulation of numerous biological processes. Leading constituents of curry leaves play a crucial role in diabetic and anticancer management by regulating various molecular pathways, including Bcl-2, Bax, NF-κB, and TNFα, according to in vitro and in vivo models established. Therefore, this review summarizes the current knowledge on research achievements made in terms of phytoconstituents, their structures, biological activities, and pharmacological actions with clinical studies of curry leaves up to date. The review also emphasizes the necessity for comprehensive research studies on the pharmacological actions and the mechanisms of selected phytochemicals of M. koenigii, M. minutum, and C. indica to validate their efficacy as potent herbal remedies for many ailments.

The effects of Daucus carota extract against PC3, PNT1a prostate cells, acetylcholinesterase, glutathione S-transferase, and α-glycosidase; an in vitro-in silico study

Daucus carota L. ssp. major (DCM) plant is widely used in traditional medicine to treat some types of cancer and various diseases. Therefore, we evaluated the biological activities of this plant to define its effects against prostate cancer (PCa), Alzheimer's disease (AD), oxidation, and diabetes mellitus (DM) as well as identified its phenolic composition. To determine the anti-cancer properties of the plant extract, we treated PCa cells with the extract at a concentration range of 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 mg/ml. Significant results were obtained against the PC3 cells compared to normal PNT1a prostate epithelial cells. As a result of precise measurements at the millimolar level, it was observed that the plant extract showed an effective inhibition (IC₅₀ ) against glutathione S-transferase (GST; 12.84 mM), acetyl cholinesterase (AChE; 15.07 mM), and α-Gly (11.75 mM) enzymes when compared with standard inhibitors. Antioxidant activities of DCM methanol extract were determined via two well-known in vitro techniques. The extracts showed antioxidant activities against the DPPH and ABTS⁺ . The LC-ESI-MS/MS was used to determine the phenolic compounds of methanol extract from DCM. Chlorogenic acid (2,089.096 µg/g), shikimic acid (193.14 µg/g), and coumarin (113.604 µg/g) were characterized as major phenolic compounds. In addition, the interactions of chlorogenic acid, chrysin, coumarin, and shikimic acid with the used three enzymes have been calculated using molecular docking simulation. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Plant natural phenolic compounds have protective effects such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticarcinogen, and enzyme inhibitory. Therefore, it has an important place in the food and pharmaceutical industry. The present study aims to reveal the enzyme inhibitory, antioxidant, and anticarcinogenic properties of the Daucus carota ssp. Major (DCM) plant extract. Significant results were obtained against the PC3 cells compared to normal PNT1a prostate epithelial cells. DCM extract demonstrated considerable antioxidant activity and inhibitory potential on used metabolic enzymes. These biological effects are thought to have a relationship with rich chemical composition.

Phytomedicines Targeting Cancer Stem Cells: Therapeutic Opportunities and Prospects for Pharmaceutical Development

The presence of small subpopulations of cells within tumor cells are known as cancer stem cells (CSCs). These cells have been the reason for metastasis, resistance with chemotherapy or radiotherapy, and tumor relapse in several types of cancers. CSCs underwent to epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) and resulted in the development of aggressive tumors. CSCs have potential to modulate numerous signaling pathways including Wnt, Hh, and Notch, therefore increasing the stem-like characteristics of cancer cells. The raised expression of drug efflux pump and suppression of apoptosis has shown increased resistance with anti-cancer drugs. Among many agents which were shown to modulate these, the plant-derived bioactive agents appear to modulate these key regulators and were shown to remove CSCs. This review aims to comprehensively scrutinize the preclinical and clinical studies demonstrating the effects of phytocompounds on CSCs isolated from various tumors. Based on the available convincing literature from preclinical studies, with some clinical data, it is apparent that selective targeting of CSCs with plants, plant preparations, and plant-derived bioactive compounds, termed phytochemicals, may be a promising strategy for the treatment of relapsed cancers.

Natural Products as a Promising Therapeutic Strategy to Target Cancer Stem Cells

Cancer is still a deadly disease, and its treatment desperately needs to be managed in a very sophisticated way through fast-developing novel strategies. Most of the cancer cases eventually develop into recurrencies, for which cancer stem cells (CSCs) are thought to be responsible. They are considered as a subpopulation of all cancer cells of tumor tissue with aberrant regulation of self-renewal, unbalanced proliferation, and cell death properties. Moreover, CSCs show a serious degree of resistance to chemotherapy or radiotherapy and immune surveillance as well. Therefore, new classes of drugs are rushing into the market each year, which makes the cost of therapy increase dramatically. Natural products are also becoming a new research area as a diverse chemical library to suppress CSCs. Some of the products even show promise in this regard. So, the near future could witness the introduction of natural products as a source of new chemotherapy modalities, which may result in the development of novel anticancer drugs. They could also be a reasonably-priced alternative to highly expensive current treatments. Nowadays, considering the effects of natural compounds on targeting surface markers, signaling pathways, apoptosis, and escape from immunosurveillance have been a highly intriguing area in preclinical and clinical research. In this review, we present scientific advances regarding their potential use in the inhibition of CSCs and the mechanisms by which they kill the CSCs.

A Review of the Anti-Cancer Potential of Murraya koenigii (Curry Tree) and Its Active Constituents

Murraya koenigii (MK) relates to the Rutaceae family and has many health benefits. To date, over eighty-eight carbazole alkaloids along with terpenoids, and other nutrients have been identified from different parts of this plant. This review presents accumulated information regarding the role of MK and its constituents in the prevention/treatment of cancer. Literature survey revealed that MK and its constituents target multiple deranged pathways associated with apoptosis, growth (JAK-STAT, mTOR), and cell cycle in a variety of cancerous cell lines (colon, lung, liver, skin, prostate, breast, etc.) and few animal models. Thus, the present review highlights the anticancer mechanism of MK and its phytoconstituents, and further future perspectives. The ameliorating effects of MK and its phytoconstituents against various cancers warrant its multi-institutional clinical trials as soon as possible. The prospects of relatively cheaper cancer drugs could then be brighter, particularly for the socio-economically feebler cancer patients of the world.

Natural Compounds Targeting Cancer Stem Cells: A Promising Resource for Chemotherapy

BACKGROUND

Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs) are the subpopulation of cancer cells which are directly involved in drug resistance, metastases to distant organ and cancer recurrence.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted through various electronic databases including, Pubmed, Scopus, Google scholar using the keywords "cancer stem cells" and "natural compounds" in the present study. Articles published between 1999 and 2019 were reviewed. All the expositions concerning CSCs associated cancer pathogenesis and therapy resistance, as well as targeting these properties of CSCs by natural compounds were selected for the current study.

RESULTS

Natural compounds have always been thought as a rich source of biologically active principles, which target aberrantly activated signaling pathways and other modalities of CSCs, while tethering painful side effects commonly involved in the first-line and second-line chemo-radiotherapies. In this review, we have described the key signaling pathways activated in CSCs to maintain their survival and highlighted how natural compounds interrupt these signaling pathways to minimize therapy resistance, pathogenesis and cancer recurrence properties of CSCs, thereby providing useful strategies to treat cancer or aid in cancer therapy improvement. Like normal stem cells, CSCs rely on different signaling pathways and other properties for their maintenance. Therefore, the success of cancer treatment depends on the development of proper anti-neoplastic drugs capable of intercepting those signaling pathways as well as other properties of CSCs in order to eradicate this evasive subpopulation of cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

Compounds of natural origin might act as an outstanding source to design novel therapies against cancer stem cells.

Chemopreventive activity of hydroethanolic Murraya koenigii leaves extract (HEMKLE) against chemically induced skin carcinogenesis in mice

The present study aimed to examine the chemoprotective effect of Hydroethanolic Murraya koenigii leaves extract (HEMKLE) on murine skin carcinogenesis model. For the study, male LACA mice divided into four groups (n = 15 per group). Group I (Control), Group II (DMBA/TPA), Group III (HEMKLE), and Group IV (HEMKLE + DMBA/TPA). Skin tumors were induced in Group II (DMBA/TPA) and Group IV (HEMKLE + DMBA/TPA) by topical application of 7, 12 dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) [500 nmol/100 μL of acetone, twice a week for two weeks] and 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate (TPA) [1.7 nmol/100 μL of acetone, twice a week for eighteen weeks] and HEMKLE (200 mg/kg b. w.) was administered orally (instilled by oral gavage). The chemoprotective response of HEMKLE was evident by inhibition in tumor incidence, mean tumor volume, mean tumor burden, total number of tumors, and tumor size in Group IV (HEMKLE + DMBA/TPA) when compared to Group II (DMBA/TPA). HEMKLE administration also decreased the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation (LPO) levels and increased the antioxidants enzyme activities in Group IV (HEMKLE + DMBA/TPA) when compared to Group II (DMBA/TPA) that suggests its antioxidant potential. HEMKLE administration also increased the mRNA and protein expression of caspase-9 and caspase-3 and decreased the mRNA and protein expression of Bcl-2 in Group IV (HEMKLE + DMBA/TPA) when compared to Group II (DMBA/TPA) that suggest its apoptosis-inducing effect on DMBA/TPA induced skin carcinogenesis.

Phytonanomedicine: a novel avenue to treat recurrent cancer by targeting cancer stem cells

Research suggests that tumor relapse and metastasis is caused by minor population of tumor-initiating cells called cancer stem cells (CSCs), which exhibit self-renewability, quiescence, antiapoptosis, and drug resistance. Conventional chemotherapeutics target rapidly proliferating cells but fail to exert cytotoxic effects on CSCs, thus enriching them and driving metastasis and relapse. Hence, targeting CSCs is essential for developing novel therapies for effective cancer treatment. Pertaining to this, several phytochemicals have been identified that exhibit anti-CSC activity. However, poor pharmacokinetics prevents their clinical translation. Hence, developing phytonanomedicine can help to improve the pharmacokinetic profile of these biologically active molecules. In this review, we summarize the current state of the art of phytonanomedicine in the context of CSCs and their clinical status in cancer treatment.

Phenolic compounds from Mediterranean foods as nutraceutical tools for the prevention of cancer: The effect of honey polyphenols on colorectal cancer stem-like cells from spheroids

Chemoresistance and development of relapses are ascribable to a rare cell population of tumour mass: cancer stem cells (CSCs). Targeting CSCs could increase patients' survival rate and it is important to identify molecules that can act on the main pathways of these cells. Natural bioactive compounds, of which Manuka honey (MH) is rich, could be a good opportunity to target them. This work aims to evaluate the effect of MH on CSCs-like from human colorectal carcinoma (HCT-116 cell line) enriched through the in vitro sphere-forming assay. The results showed that MH reduced the volume of the entire culture of spheroids, affecting also their morphological parameters and induced apoptosis and ROS intracellular accumulation in CSCs-like. In addition, MH decreased the mRNA expression of one of ABC transporters (ABCG2) and affected self-renewal ability through the downregulation of the mRNA expression of one of the receptor membranes of Wnt/β-catenin pathway (Frizzled 7).

Molecular Insights Into Therapeutic Potential of Autophagy Modulation by Natural Products for Cancer Stem Cells

Autophagy, a cellular self-digestion process that is activated in response to stress, has a functional role in tumor formation and progression. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) accounting for a minor proportion of total cancer cells-have distinct self-renewal and differentiation abilities and promote metastasis. Researchers have shown that a numeral number of natural products using traditional experimental methods have been revealed to target CSCs. However, the specific role of autophagy with respect to CSCs and tumorigenesis using natural products are still unknown. Currently, CSCs are considered to be one of the causative reasons underlying the failure of anticancer treatment as a result of tumor recurrence, metastasis, and chemo- or radio-resistance. Autophagy may play a dual role in CSC-related resistance to anticancer treatment; it is responsible for cell fate determination and the targeted degradation of transcription factors via growth arrest. It has been established that autophagy promotes drug resistance, dormancy, and stemness and maintenance of CSCs. Surprisingly, numerous studies have also suggested that autophagy can facilitate the loss of stemness in CSCs. Here, we review current progress in research related to the multifaceted connections between autophagy modulation and CSCs control using natural products. Overall, we emphasize the importance of understanding the role of autophagy in the maintenance of different CSCs and implications of this connection for the development of new strategies for cancer treatment targeting natural products.

Assessment of anti-cancer effects of koenimbine on colon cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have highlighted the role of natural elements in reduction of cancer cell growth and apoptosis. Koenimbine, a natural product isolated from Murraya koenigii (L) Spreng is a substance with cytotoxic effects on cancer cells.

AIM

The effects of koenimbine on HT-29 and SW48 colon cancer cells were evaluated by MTT and Annexin V assays. Expression levels of Wnt/β-catenin pathway genes were quantified by real time PCR.

RESULTS

The IC50 values of koenimbine in HT-29 and SW48 was calculated to be 50 μg/ml based on the results of MTT assay. This value was 75 μg/ml in IEC-18 cells which were used as normal control. Annexin V assays revealed induction of cell apoptosis and necrosis in HT-29 and SW48 cells but not IEG18 cells by koenimbine. Koenimbin treatment resulted in significant down-regulation of CYCLD1 expression in SW48 cell line, but up-regulation of this gene in HT29 cell line. Expression of TBLR1, DKK1, GSK3B and β-catenin was significantly decreased after koenimbin treatment in HT-19 cell line. Moreover, expression of DKK1 and GSK3B was significantly decreased after koenimbin treatment in SW-40 cell line. TCF4 expression was not detected in any of cell lines either before or after treatment with koenimbin.

CONCLUSION

The current in vitro study showed the cytotoxic effects of koenimbin on two colon cancer cell lines and the effects of this substance on expression of selected genes from Wnt-β catenin pathway. Future in vivo studies are needed before suggestion of this substance as an anti-cancer drug.

Influence of Geographical and Seasonal Variations on Carbazole Alkaloids Distribution in Murraya koenigii: Deciding Factor of Its In Vitro and In Vivo Efficacies against Cancer Cells

Murraya koenigii is a well-known Indian medicinal herb, and a carbazole alkaloid (mahanine) from this plant causes apoptosis in cancer cells. Here, we investigated how seasonal and geographical variations influence carbazole alkaloids composition and medicinal property of this plant against cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Leaflets were collected from various places in different seasons for three years. A mahanine-enriched fraction (MEF) was prepared in two steps using ethanol and water. The best plant was selected based on the highest percent of mahanine. MEF prepared from leaflets of nine different locations showed a different concentration of identified markers (mahanine, mahanimbine, and koenimbine) which exhibited differential reduced metabolic activity against ovarian cancer, mahanine being the best. Our systematic study revealed that mahanine content was highest during September–December. Interestingly, MEF from southern part (tropical zone) exhibited 43 ± 2.5% mahanine compared to  2.7 ± 1.3% in northeastern part (subtropical zone) with five folds higher activity against PA1. Moreover, MEF reduced metabolic activity of sixteen cancer cell lines from nine different origins and significantly reduced tumor mass in lung and ovarian cancer xenograft models. Taken together, this is the first report demonstrating the marker's content in these leaflets is highly dependent on location/season. A positive correlation between biological activity and mahanine concentration was established in MEF. Such a comprehensive study suggests that the selection of location and suitable season for collection of any plant materials with biologically active stable markers in sufficient quantity play a decisive role in determining the fate of their medicinal property.