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Cavalcante BRR, Freitas RD, Siquara da Rocha LO, Santos RSB, Souza BSDF, Ramos PIP, Rocha GV, Gurgel Rocha CA. In silico approaches for drug repurposing in oncology: a scoping review. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1400029. [PMID: 38919258 PMCID: PMC11196849 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1400029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cancer refers to a group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells in the body. Due to its complexity, it has been hard to find an ideal medicine to treat all cancer types, although there is an urgent need for it. However, the cost of developing a new drug is high and time-consuming. In this sense, drug repurposing (DR) can hasten drug discovery by giving existing drugs new disease indications. Many computational methods have been applied to achieve DR, but just a few have succeeded. Therefore, this review aims to show in silico DR approaches and the gap between these strategies and their ultimate application in oncology. Methods: The scoping review was conducted according to the Arksey and O'Malley framework and the Joanna Briggs Institute recommendations. Relevant studies were identified through electronic searching of PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science databases, as well as the grey literature. We included peer-reviewed research articles involving in silico strategies applied to drug repurposing in oncology, published between 1 January 2003, and 31 December 2021. Results: We identified 238 studies for inclusion in the review. Most studies revealed that the United States, India, China, South Korea, and Italy are top publishers. Regarding cancer types, breast cancer, lymphomas and leukemias, lung, colorectal, and prostate cancer are the top investigated. Additionally, most studies solely used computational methods, and just a few assessed more complex scientific models. Lastly, molecular modeling, which includes molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations, was the most frequently used method, followed by signature-, Machine Learning-, and network-based strategies. Discussion: DR is a trending opportunity but still demands extensive testing to ensure its safety and efficacy for the new indications. Finally, implementing DR can be challenging due to various factors, including lack of quality data, patient populations, cost, intellectual property issues, market considerations, and regulatory requirements. Despite all the hurdles, DR remains an exciting strategy for identifying new treatments for numerous diseases, including cancer types, and giving patients faster access to new medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Raphael Ribeiro Cavalcante
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (IGM-FIOCRUZ/BA), Salvador, Brazil
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine of the School of Medicine, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Raíza Dias Freitas
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (IGM-FIOCRUZ/BA), Salvador, Brazil
- Department of Social and Pediatric Dentistry of the School of Dentistry, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Leonardo de Oliveira Siquara da Rocha
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (IGM-FIOCRUZ/BA), Salvador, Brazil
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine of the School of Medicine, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
| | | | - Bruno Solano de Freitas Souza
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (IGM-FIOCRUZ/BA), Salvador, Brazil
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Salvador, Brazil
| | - Pablo Ivan Pereira Ramos
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (IGM-FIOCRUZ/BA), Salvador, Brazil
- Center of Data and Knowledge Integration for Health (CIDACS), Salvador, Brazil
| | - Gisele Vieira Rocha
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (IGM-FIOCRUZ/BA), Salvador, Brazil
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Salvador, Brazil
| | - Clarissa Araújo Gurgel Rocha
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (IGM-FIOCRUZ/BA), Salvador, Brazil
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine of the School of Medicine, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Salvador, Brazil
- Department of Propaedeutics, School of Dentistry of the Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
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Okashita N, Maeda R, Tachibana M. CDYL reinforces male gonadal sex determination through epigenetically repressing Wnt4 transcription in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2221499120. [PMID: 37155872 PMCID: PMC10193937 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2221499120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
In mammals, male and female gonads initially develop from bipotential progenitor cells, which can differentiate into either testicular or ovarian cells. The decision to adopt a testicular or ovarian fate relies on robust genetic forces, i.e., activation of the testis-determining gene Sry, as well as a delicate balance of expression levels for pro-testis and pro-ovary factors. Recently, epigenetic regulation has been found to be a key element in activation of Sry. Nevertheless, the mechanism by which epigenetic regulation controls the expression balance of pro-testis and pro-ovary factors remains unclear. Chromodomain Y-like protein (CDYL) is a reader protein for repressive histone H3 methylation marks. We found that a subpopulation of Cdyl-deficient mice exhibited XY sex reversal. Gene expression analysis revealed that the testis-promoting gene Sox9 was downregulated in XY Cdyl-deficient gonads during the sex determination period without affecting Sry expression. Instead, we found that the ovary-promoting gene Wnt4 was derepressed in XY Cdyl-deficient gonads prior to and during the sex-determination period. Wnt4 heterozygous deficiency restored SOX9 expression in Cdyl-deficient XY gonads, indicating that derepressed Wnt4 is a cause of the repression of Sox9. We found that CDYL directly bound to the Wnt4 promoter and maintained its H3K27me3 levels during the sex-determination period. These findings indicate that CDYL reinforces male gonadal sex determination by repressing the ovary-promoting pathway in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Okashita
- Laboratory of Epigenome Dynamics, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka565-0871, Japan
| | - Ryo Maeda
- Laboratory of Epigenome Dynamics, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka565-0871, Japan
| | - Makoto Tachibana
- Laboratory of Epigenome Dynamics, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka565-0871, Japan
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Nie X, Liu H, Liu L, Wang YD, Chen WD. Emerging Roles of Wnt Ligands in Human Colorectal Cancer. Front Oncol 2020; 10:1341. [PMID: 32923386 PMCID: PMC7456893 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.01341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the fourth leading cause of cancer death worldwide, and constitutive activation of the Wnt signaling pathway is universal in most CRC cases. Wnt ligands (Wnts) are secreted glycoproteins and fundamentally essential for the transduction of Wnt signaling pathway. However, the 19 members of Wnts in humans imply a daunting complexity of Wnt signaling and biological effects, and our understanding of their roles in CRC tumorigenesis is still quite rudimentary. This review will give an overview of the structural characteristics and maturation process of Wnts. The expression pattern of all human Wnts in CRC tissues, including Wnt1, Wnt2, Wnt2b, Wnt3, Wnt3a, Wnt4, Wnt5a, Wnt5b, Wnt6, Wnt7a, Wnt7b, Wnt8a, Wnt8b, Wnt9a, Wnt9b, Wnt10a, Wnt10b, Wnt11, and Wnt16, and their relationship with the tumorigenesis and the progression of CRC will be specifically summarized separately. Despite certain challenges, Wnt-based therapeutics for CRC emerge continuously and some are now in clinical trials. In conclusion, a deep understanding of Wnts is very helpful for a better management of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobo Nie
- Key Laboratory of Receptors-Mediated Gene Regulation and Drug Discovery, People's Hospital of Hebi, School of Medicine, Henan University, Henan, China
| | - Huiyang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Receptors-Mediated Gene Regulation and Drug Discovery, People's Hospital of Hebi, School of Medicine, Henan University, Henan, China
| | - Lei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Receptors-Mediated Gene Regulation and Drug Discovery, People's Hospital of Hebi, School of Medicine, Henan University, Henan, China
| | - Yan-Dong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Yan-Dong Wang
| | - Wei-Dong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Receptors-Mediated Gene Regulation and Drug Discovery, People's Hospital of Hebi, School of Medicine, Henan University, Henan, China
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Pathology, School of Basic Medical Science, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, China
- Wei-Dong Chen
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Kalhor H, Poorebrahim M, Rahimi H, Shabani AA, Karimipoor M, Akbari Eidgahi MR, Teimoori-Toolabi L. Structural and dynamic characterization of human Wnt2-Fzd7 complex using computational approaches. J Mol Model 2018; 24:274. [PMID: 30191337 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-018-3788-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Wnt and Frizzled (Fzd) family members play crucial roles in the self-renewal of tumor-initiating cells. Until now, only a few studies have addressed the distinct mechanism of Wnt-Fzd interactions. In this study, we suggest a possible interaction mode of Wnt2 with the Fzd7 cysteine-rich domain (CRD)-both of which are up-regulated in some types of cancer. A combination of homology modeling, molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations was carried out to study this ligand-receptor complex in great detail. The results demonstrated the unique dynamic behavior of Wnt2 upon binding to Fzd7. Interestingly, the β-strand content of the C-terminal binding site of Wnt2 was obviously reduced when bound to Fzd7 CRD. Moreover, the N-terminal and C-terminal binding sites of Wnt2 appeared to interact with the C-terminal and N-terminal binding sites of Fzd7, respectively. Calculation of the binding energies uncovered the pivotal role of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions in the binding of Wnt2 to Fzd7 CRD. In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the mechanism of the Wnt2-Fzd7 CRD interaction for application in colorectal cancer prevention programs. Graphical abstract Flowchart representation of different steps used in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hourieh Kalhor
- Department and Biotechnology Research Center, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran.,Molecular Medicine Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Hamzeh Rahimi
- Molecular Medicine Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Akbar Shabani
- Department and Biotechnology Research Center, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
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Mirza SB, Lee RCH, Chu JJH, Salmas RE, Mavromoustakos T, Durdagi S. Discovery of selective dengue virus inhibitors using combination of molecular fingerprint-based virtual screening protocols, structure-based pharmacophore model development, molecular dynamics simulations and in vitro studies. J Mol Graph Model 2017; 79:88-102. [PMID: 29156382 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2017.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Dengue virus is a major issue of tropical and sub-tropical regions. The proliferation of virus results in immense number of deaths each year because of unavailability of on-shelf drugs. This issue necessitates the design of novel anti-Dengue drugs. The protease enzyme pathway is the critical target for drug design due to its significance in the replication, survival and other cellular activities of Dengue virus. Keeping in mind the worsening situation regarding Dengue virus, approximately eighteen million drug-like compounds from the ZINC small molecule database have been screened against Nonstructural Protein 3 (NS3) previously by our group. In this study, in order to investigate the effect of extended time of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations on structural and dynamical profiles of used complexes, simulation run time is increased from 50-ns to 100-ns for the each system. In addition, a well-known Dengue virus inhibitor (MB21) from literature is used as reference structure (positive control) to compare the proposed molecules. Post-processing MD analyses including Molecular Mechanics/Generalized Born Surface Area (MM/GBSA) calculations were conducted to predict binding free energies of inhibitors from derived trajectory frames of MD simulations. Identified compounds are further directed to Quantum-Polarized Ligand Docking (QPLD), molecular fingerprint-based virtual screening of another small molecule database (Otava Drug Like small molecule database), and Structure-based Pharmacophore Modeling (E-Pharmacophore). Finally, cell proliferation and cytotoxicity tests as well as pre- and post-treatment on HUH7 cells infected with DENV2 NGC strain are applied for four identified hit molecules (ZINC36681949, ZINC44921800, ZINC95518765 and ZINC39500661) to check whether these drugs inhibit DENV2 from entry and/or exit pathways. Based on cell-based Dengue quantification assays, there is no effect seen on pre-treatment of cells with these compounds indicating that the early infection processes of virus is not affected. In contrast, the post-treatment of cells with these compounds after Dengue virus infection has resulted in a significant 1 log PFU/ml reduction of the virus infectious titre.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaher Bano Mirza
- Computational Biology and Molecular Simulations Laboratory, Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Turkey; Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Park Road, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Regina Ching Hua Lee
- Laboratory of Molecular RNA Virology and Antiviral Strategies, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Justin Jang Hann Chu
- Laboratory of Molecular RNA Virology and Antiviral Strategies, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ramin Ekhteiari Salmas
- Computational Biology and Molecular Simulations Laboratory, Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Serdar Durdagi
- Computational Biology and Molecular Simulations Laboratory, Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Turkey
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Mirza SB, Lee RCH, Chu JJH, Salmas RE, Mavromoustakos T, Durdagi S. Discovery of selective dengue virus inhibitors using combination of molecular fingerprint-based virtual screening protocols, structure-based pharmacophore model development, molecular dynamics simulations and in vitro studies. J Mol Graph Model 2017; 77:338. [PMID: 28957754 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2017.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Dengue virus is a major issue of tropical and sub-tropical regions. The proliferation of virus results in immense number of deaths each year because of unavailability of on-shelf drugs. This issue necessitates the design of novel anti-Dengue drugs. The protease enzyme pathway is the critical target for drug design due to its significance in the replication, survival and other cellular activities of Dengue virus. Keeping in mind the worsening situation regarding Dengue virus, approximately eighteen million drug-like compounds from the ZINC small molecule database have been screened against Nonstructural Protein 3 (NS3) previously by our group. In this study, in order to investigate the effect of extended time of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations on structural and dynamical profiles of used complexes, simulation run time is increased from 50-ns to 100-ns for the each system. In addition, a well-known Dengue virus inhibitor (MB21) from literature is used as reference structure (positive control) to compare the proposed molecules. Post-processing MD analyses including Molecular Mechanics/Generalized Born Surface Area (MM/GBSA) calculations were conducted to predict binding free energies of inhibitors from derived trajectory frames of MD simulations. Identified compounds are further directed to Quantum-Polarized Ligand Docking (QPLD), molecular fingerprint-based virtual screening of another small molecule database (Otava Drug Like small molecule database), and Structure-based Pharmacophore Modeling (E-Pharmacophore). Finally, cell proliferation and cytotoxicity tests as well as pre- and post-treatment on HUH7 cells infected with DENV2 NGC strain are applied for four identified hit molecules (ZINC36681949, ZINC44921800, ZINC95518765 and ZINC39500661) to check whether these drugs inhibit DENV2 from entry and/or exit pathways. Based on cell-based Dengue quantification assays, there is no effect seen on pre-treatment of cells with these compounds indicating that the early infection processes of virus is not affected. In contrast, the post-treatment of cells with these compounds after Dengue virus infection has resulted in a significant 1logPFU/ml reduction of the virus infectious titre.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaher Bano Mirza
- Computational Biology and Molecular Simulations Laboratory, Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Turkey; Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Park Road, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Regina Ching Hua Lee
- Laboratory of Molecular RNA Virology and Antiviral Strategies, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Justin Jang Hann Chu
- Laboratory of Molecular RNA Virology and Antiviral Strategies, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ramin Ekhteiari Salmas
- Computational Biology and Molecular Simulations Laboratory, Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Serdar Durdagi
- Computational Biology and Molecular Simulations Laboratory, Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Mirza SB, Ekhteiari Salmas R, Fatmi MQ, Durdagi S. Discovery of Klotho peptide antagonists against Wnt3 and Wnt3a target proteins using combination of protein engineering, protein-protein docking, peptide docking and molecular dynamics simulations. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2016; 32:84-98. [PMID: 27766889 PMCID: PMC6009926 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2016.1235569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The Klotho is known as lifespan enhancing protein involved in antagonizing the effect of Wnt proteins. Wnt proteins are stem cell regulators, and uninterrupted exposure of Wnt proteins to the cell can cause stem and progenitor cell senescence, which may lead to aging. Keeping in mind the importance of Klotho in Wnt signaling, in silico approaches have been applied to study the important interactions between Klotho and Wnt3 and Wnt3a (wingless-type mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) integration site family members 3 and 3a). The main aim of the study is to identify important residues of the Klotho that help in designing peptides which can act as Wnt antagonists. For this aim, a protein engineering study is performed for Klotho, Wnt3 and Wnt3a. During the theoretical analysis of homology models, unexpected role of number of disulfide bonds and secondary structure elements has been witnessed in case of Wnt3 and Wnt3a proteins. Different in silico experiments were carried out to observe the effect of correct number of disulfide bonds on 3D protein models. For this aim, total of 10 molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were carried out for each system. Based on the protein–protein docking simulations of selected protein models of Klotho with Wnt3 and Wnt3a, different peptides derived from Klotho have been designed. Wnt3 and Wnt3a proteins have three important domains: Index finger, N-terminal domain and a patch of ∼10 residues on the solvent exposed surface of palm domain. Protein–peptide docking of designed peptides of Klotho against three important domains of palmitoylated Wnt3 and Wnt3a yields encouraging results and leads better understanding of the Wnt protein inhibition by proposed Klotho peptides. Further in vitro studies can be carried out to verify effects of novel designed peptides as Wnt antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaher Bano Mirza
- a Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine , Bahcesehir University (BAU) , Istanbul , Turkey.,b Department of Biosciences , COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT) , Islamabad , Pakistan
| | - Ramin Ekhteiari Salmas
- a Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine , Bahcesehir University (BAU) , Istanbul , Turkey
| | - M Qaiser Fatmi
- b Department of Biosciences , COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT) , Islamabad , Pakistan
| | - Serdar Durdagi
- a Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine , Bahcesehir University (BAU) , Istanbul , Turkey
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Lu B, Green BA, Farr JM, Lopes FCM, Van Raay TJ. Wnt Drug Discovery: Weaving Through the Screens, Patents and Clinical Trials. Cancers (Basel) 2016; 8:cancers8090082. [PMID: 27598201 PMCID: PMC5040984 DOI: 10.3390/cancers8090082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The Wnt signaling pathway is intricately involved in many aspects of development and is the root cause of an increasing number of diseases. For example, colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of death in the industrialized world and aberration of Wnt signaling within the colonic stem cell is the cause of more than 90% of these cancers. Despite our advances in successfully targeting other pathways, such as Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 (HER2), there are no clinically relevant therapies available for Wnt-related diseases. Here, we investigated where research activities are focused with respect to Wnt signaling modulators by searching the United States Patent and Trade Office (USPTO) for patents and patent applications related to Wnt modulators and compared this to clinical trials focusing on Wnt modulation. We found that while the transition of intellectual property surrounding the Wnt ligand-receptor interface to clinical trials is robust, this is not true for specific inhibitors of β-catenin, which is constitutively active in many cancers. Considering the ubiquitous use of the synthetic T-cell Factor/Lymphoid Enhancer Factor (TCF/Lef) reporter system and its success in identifying novel modulators in vitro, we speculate that this model of drug discovery does not capture the complexity of in vivo Wnt signaling that may be required if we are to successfully target the Wnt pathway in the clinic. Notwithstanding, increasingly more complex models are being developed, which may not be high throughput, but more pragmatic in our pursuit to control Wnt signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Lu
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Brooke A Green
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Jacqueline M Farr
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Flávia C M Lopes
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Terence J Van Raay
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
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