Redox-responsive hyaluronic acid-functionalized graphene oxide nanosheets for targeted delivery of water-insoluble cancer drugs

2D nanomaterials-based delivery systems and their potentials in anticancer synergistic photo-immunotherapy

As the field of cancer therapeutics evolves, integrating two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials with photo-immunotherapy has emerged as a promising approach with significant potential to augment cancer treatment efficacy. These 2D nanomaterials include graphene-based 2D nanomaterials, 2D MXenes, 2D layered double hydroxides, black phosphorus nanosheets, 2D metal-organic frameworks, and 2D transition metal dichalcogenides. They exhibit high load capacities, multiple functionalization pathways, optimal biocompatibility, and physiological stability. Predominantly, they function as anti-tumor delivery systems, amalgamating diverse therapeutic modalities, most notably phototherapy and immunotherapy, and the former is a recognized non-invasive treatment modality, and the latter represents the most promising anti-cancer strategy presently accessible. Thus, integrating phototherapy and immunotherapy founded on 2D nanomaterials unveils a novel paradigm in the war against cancer. This review delineates the latest developments in 2D nanomaterials as delivery systems for synergistic photo-immunotherapy in cancer treatment. We elaborate on the burgeoning realm of photo-immunotherapy, exploring the interplay between phototherapy and enhanced immune cells, immune response modulation, or immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments. Notably, the strategies to augment photo-immunotherapy have also been discussed. Finally, we discuss the challenges and future perspectives of these 2D nanomaterials in photo-immunotherapy.

Respiratory Toxicology of Graphene-Based Nanomaterials: A Review

Graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNs) consist of a single or few layers of graphene sheets or modified graphene including pristine graphene, graphene nanosheets (GNS), graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), as well as graphene modified with various functional groups or chemicals (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl, and polyethylene glycol), which are frequently used in industrial and biomedical applications owing to their exceptional physicochemical properties. Given the widespread production and extensive application of GBNs, they can be disseminated in a wide range of environmental mediums, such as air, water, food, and soil. GBNs can enter the human body through various routes such as inhalation, ingestion, dermal penetration, injection, and implantation in biomedical applications, and the majority of GBNs tend to accumulate in the respiratory system. GBNs inhaled and substantially deposited in the human respiratory tract may impair lung defenses and clearance, resulting in the formation of granulomas and pulmonary fibrosis. However, the specific toxicity of the respiratory system caused by different GBNs, their influencing factors, and the underlying mechanisms remain relatively scarce. This review summarizes recent advances in the exposure, metabolism, toxicity and potential mechanisms, current limitations, and future perspectives of various GBNs in the respiratory system.

Graphene oxide nanoarchitectures in cancer therapy: Drug and gene delivery, phototherapy, immunotherapy, and vaccine development

The latest advancements in oncology involves the creation of multifunctional nanostructures. The integration of nanoparticles into the realm of cancer therapy has brought about a transformative shift, revolutionizing the approach to addressing existing challenges and limitations in tumor elimination. This is particularly crucial in combating the emergence of resistance, which has significantly undermined the effectiveness of treatments like chemotherapy and radiotherapy. GO stands as a carbon-derived nanoparticle that is increasingly finding utility across diverse domains, notably in the realm of biomedicine. The utilization of GO nanostructures holds promise in the arena of oncology, enabling precise transportation of drugs and genetic material to targeted sites. GO nanomaterials offer the opportunity to enhance the pharmacokinetic behavior and bioavailability of drugs, with documented instances of these nanocarriers elevating drug accumulation at the tumor location. The GO nanostructures encapsulate genes, shielding them from degradation and facilitating their uptake within cancer cells, thereby promoting efficient gene silencing. The capability of GO to facilitate phototherapy has led to notable advancements in reducing tumor progression. By PDT and PTT combination, GO nanomaterials hold the capacity to diminish tumorigenesis. GO nanomaterials have the potential to trigger both cellular and innate immunity, making them promising contenders for vaccine development. Additionally, types of GO nanoparticles that respond to specific stimuli have been applied in cancer eradication, as well as for the purpose of cancer detection and biomarker diagnosis. Endocytosis serves as the mechanism through which GO nanomaterials are internalized. Given these advantages, the utilization of GO nanomaterials for tumor elimination comes highly recommended.

Meta-Analysis of Nanoparticle Distribution in Tumors and Major Organs in Tumor-Bearing Mice

Low tumor delivery efficiency is a critical barrier in cancer nanomedicine. This study reports an updated version of "Nano-Tumor Database", which increases the number of time-dependent concentration data sets for different nanoparticles (NPs) in tumors from the previous version of 376 data sets with 1732 data points from 200 studies to the current version of 534 data sets with 2345 data points from 297 studies published from 2005 to 2021. Additionally, the current database includes 1972 data sets for five major organs (i.e., liver, spleen, lung, heart, and kidney) with a total of 8461 concentration data points. Tumor delivery and organ distribution are calculated using three pharmacokinetic parameters, including delivery efficiency, maximum concentration, and distribution coefficient. The median tumor delivery efficiency is 0.67% injected dose (ID), which is low but is consistent with previous studies. Employing the best regression model for tumor delivery efficiency, we generate hypothetical scenarios with different combinations of NP factors that may lead to a higher delivery efficiency of >3%ID, which requires further experimentation to confirm. In healthy organs, the highest NP accumulation is in the liver (10.69%ID/g), followed by the spleen 6.93%ID/g and the kidney 3.22%ID/g. Our perspective on how to facilitate NP design and clinical translation is presented. This study reports a substantially expanded "Nano-Tumor Database" and several statistical models that may help nanomedicine design in the future.

Modified gefitinib conjugated Fe3O4 NPs for improved delivery of chemo drugs following an image-guided mechanistic study of inner vs. outer tumor uptake for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

Gefitinib (GEF) is an FDA-approved anti-cancer drug for the first-line treatment of patients with metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, the efficacy of anticancer drugs is limited due to their non-specificity, lower accumulation at target sites, and systemic toxicity. Herein, we successfully synthesized a modified GEF (mGEF) drug and conjugated to Iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4 NPs) for the treatment of NSCLC via magnetic resonance (MR) image-guided drug delivery. A traditional EDC coupling pathway uses mGEF to directly conjugate to Fe3O4 NPs to overcom the drug leakage issues. As a result, we found in vitro drug delivery on mGEF- Fe3O4 NPs exhibits excellent anticancer effects towards the PC9 cells selectively, with an estimated IC 50 value of 2.0 μM. Additionally, in vivo MRI and PET results demonstrate that the NPs could accumulate in tumor-specific regions with localized cell growth inhibition. Results also revealed that outer tumor region exhibiting a stronger contrast than the tinner tumor region which may due necrosis in inner tumor region. In vivo biodistribution further confirms Fe3O4 NPs are more biocompatible and are excreated after the treatment. Overall, we believe that this current strategy of drug modification combined with chemical conjugation on magnetic NPs will lead to improved cancer chemotherapy as well as understanding the tumor microenvironments for better therapeutic outcomes.

Carbon Nanomaterials (CNMs) in Cancer Therapy: A Database of CNM-Based Nanocarrier Systems

Carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) are an incredibly versatile class of materials that can be used as scaffolds to construct anticancer nanocarrier systems. The ease of chemical functionalisation, biocompatibility, and intrinsic therapeutic capabilities of many of these nanoparticles can be leveraged to design effective anticancer systems. This article is the first comprehensive review of CNM-based nanocarrier systems that incorporate approved chemotherapy drugs, and many different types of CNMs and chemotherapy agents are discussed. Almost 200 examples of these nanocarrier systems have been analysed and compiled into a database. The entries are organised by anticancer drug type, and the composition, drug loading/release metrics, and experimental results from these systems have been compiled. Our analysis reveals graphene, and particularly graphene oxide (GO), as the most frequently employed CNM, with carbon nanotubes and carbon dots following in popularity. Moreover, the database encompasses various chemotherapeutic agents, with antimicrotubule agents being the most common payload due to their compatibility with CNM surfaces. The benefits of the identified systems are discussed, and the factors affecting their efficacy are detailed.

The progress of research on the application of redox nanomaterials in disease therapy

Redox imbalance can trigger cell dysfunction and damage and plays a vital role in the origin and progression of many diseases. Maintaining the balance between oxidants and antioxidants in vivo is a complicated and arduous task, leading to ongoing research into the construction of redox nanomaterials. Nanodrug platforms with redox characteristics can not only reduce the adverse effects of oxidative stress on tissues by removing excess oxidants from the body but also have multienzyme-like activity, which can play a cytotoxic role in tumor tissues through the catalytic oxidation of their substrates to produce harmful reactive oxygen species such as hydroxyl radicals. In this review, various redox nanomaterials currently used in disease therapy are discussed, emphasizing the treatment methods and their applications in tumors and other human tissues. Finally, the limitations of the current clinical application of redox nanomaterials are considered.

Multifunctional graphene oxide nanoparticles for drug delivery in cancer

Recent advancements in nanotechnology have enabled us to develop sophisticated multifunctional nanoparticles or nanosystems for targeted diagnosis and treatment of several illnesses, including cancers. To effectively treat any solid tumor, the therapy should preferably target just the malignant cells/tissue with minor damage to normal cells/tissues. Graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles have gained considerable interest owing to their two-dimensional planar structure, chemical/mechanical stability, excellent photosensitivity, superb conductivity, high surface area, and good biocompatibility in cancer therapy. Many compounds have been functionalized on the surface of GO to increase their biological applications and minimize cytotoxicity. The review presents an overview of the physicochemical characteristics, strategies for various modifications, toxicity and biocompatibility of graphene and graphene oxide, current trends in developing GO-based nano constructs as a drug delivery cargo and other biological applications, including chemo-photothermal therapy, chemo-photodynamic therapy, bioimaging, and theragnosis in cancer. Further, the review discusses the challenges and opportunities of GO, GO-based nanomaterials for the said applications. Overall, the review focuses on the therapeutic potential of strategically developed GO nanomedicines and comprehensively discusses their opportunities and challenges in cancer therapy.

Facile preparation of indocyanine green and tiny gold nanoclusters co-loaded nanocapsules for targeted synergistic sono-/photo-therapy

Photothermal therapy (PTT) and sono-photodynamic therapy (SPDT) are fast growing local treatment modalities with minimal invasiveness and high safety. Gold nanoparticles and indocyanine green (ICG) have been used as sensitizers for PTT and SPDT. However, long resident time of gold nanoparticles in tissues and fast elimination of ICG hampered their further clinical applications. Herein, we developed nanocapsules formed by hyaluronic acid and chitosan loading with ICG and tiny gold nanoclusters (TAuNCs) to overcome the shortcomings of gold nanoparticles and ICG for combined PTT and SPDT. The nanocapsules exhibited good biological stability, favorable photothermal effects, and ultrasound/near-infrared light (NIR)-responsive release behaviors. The hyaluronic acid could mediate the specific delivery of cargos to CD44 protein over-expressing cancer cells. The in vitro and in vivo results showed that TAuNCs and ICG could act synergistically to obtain satisfactory anticancer effects under NIR laser and/or ultrasound exposure induced by thermal ablation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Biodistribution and excretion studies showed that the nanocapsules had longer ICG retention time in tumor and most of the TAuNCs could be effectively excreted from the body within one month. This study thus provides a facile strategy for the development of a safe and high-performance nanoplatform for synergistic PTT/SPDT.

Two-dimensional nanomaterials for tumor microenvironment modulation and anticancer therapy

The development of two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials for cancer therapy has attracted increasing attention due to their high specific surface area, unique ultrathin structure, electronic and photonic properties. For biomedical applications, investigations into the family of 2D materials have been sparked by graphene and its derivatives. Many 2D nanomaterials, including layered double hydroxides, transition metal dichalcogenides, nitrides and carbonitrides, black phosphorus nanosheets, and metal-organic framework nanosheets, are extensively explored as cancer theranostic platforms. In addition to the high drug loading, 2D nanomaterials are featured with improved physiological properties of drugs, prolonged blood circulation, and increased tumor accumulation and bioavailability. As a consequence, 2D nanomaterials have been widely examined in pre-clinical tumor therapy, particularly through the tumor microenvironment (TME) modulation. This review summarizes recent progresses in developing 2D nanomaterials for TME modulating-based cancer diagnosis and therapy. It is anticipated that this review will benefit researchers to obtain a deeper understanding of interactions between 2D nanomaterials and TME components and develop rational and reliable 2D nanomedicines for pre/clinical cancer theranostics.

Black Phosphorus nanoparticles for dual therapy of non-small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer remains one of the leading causes of death in humans. Gefitinib is an inhibitor of epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI) commonly used to suppress tumor growth. However, constantly use of gefitinib results in drug-resistance, reduced efficacy, and undesired side effects. To circumvent these drawbacks, targeted and photothermal therapies have emerged as effective strategies. Herein, we are first to adopt a black phosphorus nanoparticle-based novel delivering strategy by combining gefitinib and cancer cytomembrane to treat non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In these gefitinib-containing nano-carrier, cyanine5 (Cy5) biotin-labeled black phosphorus was incorporated with cancer membrane and then consist of a nanomaterial (BPGM), which enabled to deliver gefitinib to the tumors effectively. The combination of BPGM showed reinforcing effects to suppress NSCLC cells and xenograft tumors without apparent adverse effects both in vitro and in vivo. BPGM facilitated the delivery of gefitinib to tumor tissue and extended its retention time within tumors. These studies thus suggest that black phosphorus may serve as novel delivery strategy for lung cancer.

Hyaluronic Acid-Conjugated Carbon Nanomaterials for Enhanced Tumour Targeting Ability

Hyaluronic acid (HA) has been implemented for chemo and photothermal therapy to target tumour cells overexpressing the CD44+ receptor. HA-targeting hybrid systems allows carbon nanomaterial (CNM) carriers to efficiently deliver anticancer drugs, such as doxorubicin and gemcitabine, to the tumour sites. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, graphene oxide (GO), and graphene quantum dots (GQDs) are grouped for a detailed review of the novel nanocomposites for cancer therapy. Some CNMs proved to be more successful than others in terms of stability and effectiveness at removing relative tumour volume. While the literature has been focused primarily on the CNTs and GO, other CNMs such as carbon nano-onions (CNOs) proved quite promising for targeted drug delivery using HA. Near-infrared laser photoablation is also reviewed as a primary method of cancer therapy-it can be used alone or in conjunction with chemotherapy to achieve promising chemo-photothermal therapy protocols. This review aims to give a background into HA and why it is a successful cancer-targeting component of current CNM-based drug delivery systems.

Co-delivery of gefitinib and hematoporphyrin by aptamer-modified fluorinated dendrimer for hypoxia alleviation and enhanced synergistic chemo-photodynamic therapy of NSCLC

Although epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs)-based molecular targeted therapy are proved to be effective in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with EGFR mutation, its efficacy is limited by the acquired drug resistance. The combination of EGFR-TKIs with photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been explored to combat NSCLC with promising synergistic results. However, hypoxic tumor microenvironment is associated with the development of EGFR-TKIs resistance and severely limits the efficacy of PDT. Here, we synthesized an aptamer modified fluorinated dendrimer (APF) as a drug carrier and prepared nanocomplexes APFHG by encapsulation of gefitinib (Gef) and hematoporphyrin (Hp). APF has good oxygen-carrying capacity, high drug entrapment efficiency, and could release Gef and Hp in response to intracellular pH. APF can specifically recognize EGFR-positive NSCLC cells and effectively improve the tumor hypoxic microenvironment due to the targeting effect of aptamer and the good oxygen-carrying capacity of the fluorinated dendrimer. Under the laser irradiation, APFHG can significantly increase the production of the intracellular reactive oxygen species and produce a synergistic therapeutic effect in inhibition of cellular growth and induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis on both Gef-sensitive and Gef-resistant EGFR-mutant NSCLC cells through PDT/molecular targeted therapy. This work indicates that fluorinated dendrimer could be a potent drug delivery platform to overcome hypoxia-related resistance and the co-delivery of EGFR-TKI and photosensitizer by the fluorinated dendrimer could be a promising therapeutic approach for reversal of EGFR-TKIs resistance in EGFR mutation-positive NSCLC.

Development of amine-functionalized superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles anchored graphene nanosheets as a possible theranostic agent in cancer metastasis

The major objective of the present investigation was to assess the targeting potential of a designed system for breast cancer at metastatic phases with imaging ability. In a nutshell, we have developed surface-engineered graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets by covalent linking with amine-functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) (GOIOIs). Gefitinib (Gf) was selected as a model drug and entrapped in between exfoliated GO sheets (GOIGF) via π-π* stacking before functionalization with IONPs. Preliminary characterization of GO, IONPs, GOIOI, and GOIGF was performed using UV-visible and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy studies confirmed successful surface engineering of GO with IONPs. The in vitro drug release study demonstrated sustained release of Gf. The magnetic behavior of IONPs and GOIOI demonstrated a sigmoidal-shaped hysteresis loop with superparamagnetic properties. The in vitro cell cytotoxicity assay was carried out on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer adenocarcinoma cell lines. The cell cytotoxicity assay showed 61.18% inhibition of cell growth with 30 ppm concentration containing 64% of the drug, whereas 100% of the pure drug revealed only 56% of inhibition. In the near future, GOIOI could be tailored further for theranostic research, especially for metastatic cancers. Graphical abstract.

Glutathione-responsive PLGA nanocomplex for dual delivery of doxorubicin and curcumin to overcome tumor multidrug resistance

Aim: This work aims to develop an injectable nano-drug delivery system to overcome tumor multidrug resistance (MDR). Methods: A drug delivery nanoplatform based on PEGylated PLGA with glutathione (GSH) responsivity was constructed for dual delivery of doxorubicin and curcumin (termed DCNP), and its MDR reversal efficiency was studied in vitro and in vivo. Results: The DCNPs exhibited a rapid drug release profile under high GSH concentration and could enhance the cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of doxorubicin to MDR cancer cells. Moreover, the DCNPs showed better biocompatibility, longer blood circulation and enhanced antitumor efficiency compared with free drugs. Conclusion: The GSH-responsive nanocarrier is believed to be a promising candidate for overcoming tumor MDR.

PEGylated DOX-coated nano graphene oxide as pH-responsive multifunctional nanocarrier for targeted drug delivery

Nano graphene oxide (NGO) has high drug-loading capacity due to its huge surface area. However, the limited stability and the poor biocompatibility of NGO hampered its application as drug delivery carrier under physiological conditions. Thereby, a new strategy of using chemical conjugation on NGO with hydrophilic polymers was adopted but currently was too complicated, low yield and costly. In this study, doxorubicin-hyd-PEG-folic acid (DOX-hyd-PEG-FA) polymers were coated on the surface of NGO via π-π stocking and the hydrophobic effect between DOX and NGO. With the PEG shell protection, the biocompatibility of NGO was significantly improved. The drug-loading capacity of nanoparticles was more than 100%. FA ligands on the nanoparticle could guide the nanoparticles actively targeting to tumour cells. The hydrazone bond between DOX and PEG was decomposed spontaneously in the weakly acidic environment, which made PEG layer dissociated from NGO. Furthermore, DOX was easily protonized at low pH conditions, which weakened the interaction between DOX and NGO. Thus, DOX could be released rapidly from the nanoparticles in tumour cells. In summary, NGO@DOX-hyd-PEG-FA is an easy-prepared nanoparticle with excellent biocompatibility, high pH-sensitivity and active tumour targeting. Therefore, it is a promising multifunctional nanocarrier effective for targeted drug delivery.

Recent advances in graphene-family nanomaterials for effective drug delivery and phototherapy

INTRODUCTION

Owing to the unique properties of graphene, including large specific surface area, excellent thermal conductivity, and optical absorption, graphene-family nanomaterials (GFNs) have attracted extensive attention in biomedical applications, particularly in drug delivery and phototherapy.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we point out several challenges involved in the clinical application of GFNs. Then, we provide an overview of the most recent publications about GFNs in biomedical applications, including diverse strategies for improving the biocompatibility, specific targeting and stimuli-responsiveness of GFNs for drug delivery, codelivery of drug and gene, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, and multimodal combination therapy.

EXPERT OPINION

Although the application of GFNs is still in the preclinical stage, rational modification of GFNs with functional elements or making full use of GFNs-based multimodal combination therapy might show great potential in biomedicine for clinical application.

Applications of Graphene and Graphene Oxide in Smart Drug/Gene Delivery: Is the World Still Flat?

Graphene, a wonder material, has made far-reaching developments in many different fields such as materials science, electronics, condensed physics, quantum physics, energy systems, etc. Since its discovery in 2004, extensive studies have been done for understanding its physical and chemical properties. Owing to its unique characteristics, it has rapidly became a potential candidate for nano-bio researchers to explore its usage in biomedical applications. In the last decade, remarkable efforts have been devoted to investigating the biomedical utilization of graphene and graphene-based materials, especially in smart drug and gene delivery as well as cancer therapy. Inspired by a great number of successful graphene-based materials integrations into the biomedical area, here we summarize the most recent developments made about graphene applications in biomedicine. In this paper, we review the up-to-date advances of graphene-based materials in drug delivery applications, specifically targeted drug/ gene delivery, delivery of antitumor drugs, controlled and stimuli-responsive drug release, photodynamic therapy applications and optical imaging and theranostics, as well as investigating the future trends and succeeding challenges in this topic to provide an outlook for future researches.

Lung Cancer Combination Treatment: Evaluation of the Synergistic Effect of Cisplatin Prodrug, Vinorelbine and Retinoic Acid When Co-Encapsulated in a Multi-Layered Nano-Platform

Purpose

Lung cancer remains the leading cancer-associated deaths worldwide. Cisplatin (CIS) was often used in combination with other drugs for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Prodrug is an effective strategy to improve the efficiency of drugs and reduce the toxicity. The aim of this study was to prepare and characterize CIS prodrug, vinorelbine (VNR), and all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) co-delivered multi-layered nano-platform, evaluating their antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

Cisplatin prodrug (CISP) was synthesized. A multi-layered nano-platform contained CISP, VNR and ATRA were prepared and named CISP/VNR/ATRA MLNP. The physicochemical properties of CISP/VNR/ATRA MLNP were investigated. In vitro cytotoxicity against CIS-resistant NSCLC cells (A549/CIS cells) and Human normal lung epithelial cells (BEAS-2B cells) was investigated, and in vivo anti-tumor efficiency was evaluated on mice bearing A549/CIS cells xenografts.

Results

CISP/VNR/ATRA MLNP were spherical particles with particle size and zeta potential of 158 nm and 12.3 mV. CISP/VNR/ATRA MLNP (81.36%) was uptake by cancer cells in vitro. CISP/VNR/ATRA MLNP could significantly inhibit the in vivo antitumor growth and suspended the tumor volume from 1440 mm³ to 220 mm³.

Conclusion

It could be concluded that the CISP/VNR/ATRA MLNP may be used as a promising system for lung cancer combination treatment.

Functionalized Graphene Oxide for Chemotherapeutic Drug Delivery and Cancer Treatment: A Promising Material in Nanomedicine

The usage of nanomaterials for cancer treatment has been a popular research focus over the past decade. Nanomaterials, including polymeric nanomaterials, metal nanoparticles, semiconductor quantum dots, and carbon-based nanomaterials such as graphene oxide (GO), have been used for cancer cell imaging, chemotherapeutic drug targeting, chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy. In this review, we discuss the concept of targeted nanoparticles in cancer therapy and summarize the in vivo biocompatibility of graphene-based nanomaterials. Specifically, we discuss in detail the chemistry and properties of GO and provide a comprehensive review of functionalized GO and GO-metal nanoparticle composites in nanomedicine involving anticancer drug delivery and cancer treatment.

A review on advances in graphene-derivative/polysaccharide bionanocomposites: Therapeutics, pharmacogenomics and toxicity

Graphene-based bionanocomposites are employed in several ailments, such as cancers and infectious diseases, due to their large surface area (to carry drugs), photothermal properties, and ease of their functionalization (owing to their active groups). Modification of graphene-derivatives with polysaccharides is a promising strategy to decrease their toxicity and improve target ability, which consequently enhances their biotherapeutic efficacy. Herein, functionalization of graphene-based materials with carbohydrate polymers (e.g., chitosan, starch, alginate, hyaluronic acid, and cellulose) are presented. Subsequently, recent advances in graphene nanomaterial/polysaccharide-based bionanocomposites in infection treatment and cancer therapy are comprehensively discussed. Pharmacogenomic and toxicity assessments for these bionanocomposites are also highlighted to provide insight for future optimized and smart investigations and researches.

Recent advances of two-dimensional materials in smart drug delivery nano-systems

Smart drug delivery nano-systems show significant changes in their physical or chemical properties in response to slight change in environmental physical and/or chemical signals, and further releasing drugs adjusted to the progression of the disease at the right target and rate intelligently. Two-dimensional materials possess dramatic status extend all over various scientific and technological disciplines by reason of their exceptional unique properties in application of smart drug delivery nano-systems. In this review, we summarized current progress to highlight various kinds of two-dimensional materials drug carriers which are widely explored in smart drug delivery systems as well as classification of stimuli responsive two-dimensional materials and the advantages and disadvantages of their applications. Consequently, we anticipate that this review might inspire the development of new two-dimensional materials with smart drug delivery systems, and deepen researchers' understanding of smart nano-carries based on two-dimensional materials.

Non-small cell lung cancer-targeted, redox-sensitive lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles for the delivery of a second-generation irreversible epidermal growth factor inhibitor-Afatinib: In vitro and in vivo evaluation

Afatinib (Afa), a second-generation irreversible epidermal growth factor inhibitor for the development of non-small cell lung cancer, has low bioavailability and adverse reactions. Nanoscaled drug delivery systems offer promising alternatives to address these defects and improve therapeutic outcomes. In the present study, a Tf contained, redox-sensitive ligand was synthesized and used for the preparation of afatinib loaded, Tf modified redox-sensitive lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (Tf-SS-Afa-LPNs). Subsequently, studies of biological experiments in vitro and in vivo were performed to investigate the therapeutic effect of the system in lung cancer. The results showed that Tf-SS-Afa-LPNs has particle size of 103.5 ± 4.1 nm and zeta potential of -21.2 ± 2.4 mV. Significantly higher drug release was observed in the presence of glutathione (GSH). The area under the plasma concentration - time curve (AUC), peak concentration (C_max) and terminal half life (T_1/2) of Tf-SS-Afa-LPNs were 866.56 mg/L.h, 25.62 ± 3.21 L/kg/h, and 43.25 ± 2.31 h. Tf-SS-Afa-LPNs exhibited the most remarkable in vivo anti-tumor efficiency efficacy, which inhibited the tumor volume from 919 mm³ to 212 mm³. Tf-SS-Afa-LPNs is a promising platform for the lung cancer treatment.

Redox/NIR dual-responsive MoS2 for synergetic chemo-photothermal therapy of cancer

Background

The construction of a multifunctional drug delivery system with a variety of advantageous features, including targeted delivery, controlled release and combined therapy, is highly attractive but remains a challenge.

Results

In this study, we developed a MoS₂-based hyaluronic acid (HA)-functionalized nanoplatform capable of achieving targeted delivery of camptothecin (CPT) and dual-stimuli-responsive drug release. HA was connected to MoS₂ via a disulfide linkage, forming a sheddable HA shell on the surface of MoS₂. This unique design not only effectively prevented the encapsulated CPT from randomly leaking during blood circulation but also significantly accelerated the drug release in response to tumor-associated glutathione (GSH). Moreover, the MoS₂-based generated heat upon near-infrared (NIR) irradiation could further increase the drug release rate as well as induce photothermal ablation of cancer cells. The results of in vitro and in vivo experiments revealed that MoS₂–SS–HA–CPT effectively suppressed cell proliferation and inhibited tumor growth in lung cancer cell-bearing mice under NIR irradiation via synergetic chemo-photothermal therapy.

Conclusions

The as-prepared MoS₂–SS–HA–CPT with high targeting ability, dual-stimuli-responsive drug release, and synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy may provide a new strategy for cancer therapy.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12951-019-0510-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Mitochondria and Nuclei Dual-Targeted Hollow Carbon Nanospheres for Cancer Chemophotodynamic Synergistic Therapy

Dual-targeted nanoparticles are gaining increasing importance as a more effective anticancer strategy by attacking double key sites of tumor cells, especially in chemophotodynamic therapy. To retain the nuclei inhibition effect and enhance doxorubicin (DOX)-induced apoptosis by mitochondrial pathways simultaneously, we synthesized the novel nanocarrier (HKH) based on hollow carbon nitride nanosphere (HCNS) modified with hyaluronic acid (HA) and the mitochondrial localizing peptide D[KLAKLAK]2 (KLA). DOX-loaded HKH nanoparticles (HKHDs) showed satisfactory drug-loading efficiency, excellent solubility, and very low hemolytic effect. HA/CD44 binding and electrostatic attraction between positively charged KLA and A549 cells facilitated HKHD uptake via the endocytosis mechanism. Acidic microenvironment, hyaluronidase, and KLA targeting together facilitate doxorubicin toward the mitochondria and nuclei, resulting in apoptosis, DNA intercalation, cell-cycle arrest at the S phase, and light-induced reactive oxygen species production. Intravascular HKHD inhibited tumor growth in A549-implanted mice with good safety. The present study, for the first time, systemically reveals biostability, targetability, chemophotodynamics, and safety of the functionalized novel HKHD.

Molybdenum disulfide-based hyaluronic acid-guided multifunctional theranostic nanoplatform for magnetic resonance imaging and synergetic chemo-photothermal therapy

The construction of multifunctional theranostic nanoplatforms to integrate accurate imaging and enhanced therapy to treat tumors is highly attractive but remains a challenge. Here, we developed a molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂)-based hyaluronic acid (HA)-functionalized nanoplatform capable of achieving the targeted co-delivery of the gadolinium (Gd)-based contrast agents (CAs) and the anticancer drug gefitinib (Gef) for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and synergetic chemo-photothermal therapy of tumors. Gd³⁺ ions were coupled to HA-grafted MoS₂ nanosheets with diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) as a linker, followed by the incorporation of Gef. The resulting MoS₂-HA-DTPA-Gd/Gef exhibited enhanced relaxivity, 3.3 times greater than that of the commercial CA DTPA-Gd, which facilitated the MRI in vivo. Moreover, the nanoplatform effectively converted the absorbed near-infrared (NIR) light into heat, which not only induced the photothermal ablation of cancer cells but also triggered the release of Gef from MoS₂-HA-DTPA-Gd/Gef, enabling the synergetic chemo-photothermal therapy. The results of in vitro and in vivo experiments revealed that MoS₂-HA-DTPA-Gd/Gef upon NIR irradiation effectively blocked the phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathway and activated apoptosis-related proteins to induce cell apoptosis and suppress cell proliferation, thus inhibiting the tumor growth in lung cancer cell-bearing mice. Taken together, this multifunctional theranostic nanoplatform has significant promise for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer.