Needle-shaped amphoteric calix[4]arene as a magnetic nanocarrier for simultaneous delivery of anticancer drugs to the breast cancer cells

Recent Progress of Supramolecular Chemotherapy Based on Host-Guest Interactions

Chemotherapy is widely recognized as an effective approach for treating cancer due to its ability to eliminate cancer cells using chemotherapeutic drugs. However, traditional chemotherapy suffers from various drawbacks, including limited solubility and stability of drugs, severe side effects, low bioavailability, drug resistance, and challenges in tracking treatment efficacy. These limitations greatly hinder its widespread clinical application. In contrast, supramolecular chemotherapy, which relies on host-guest interactions, presents a promising alternative by offering highly efficient and minimally toxic anticancer drug delivery. In this review, an overview of recent advancements in supramolecular chemotherapy based on host-guest interactions is provided. The significant role it plays in guiding cancer therapy is emphasized. Drawing on a wealth of cutting-edge research, herein, a timely and valuable resource for individuals interested in the field of supramolecular chemotherapy or cancer therapy, is presented. Furthermore, this review contributes to the progression of the field of supramolecular chemotherapy toward clinical application.

Magnetic xanthan gum-silk fibroin hydrogel: A nanocomposite for biological and hyperthermia applications

A magnetic xanthan hydrogel/silk fibroin nanobiocomposite (XG hydrogel/SF/Fe3O4) was designed, fabricated, and characterized using analyzing methods such as FT-IR, EDX, FE-SEM, XRD, TGA, and VSM to evaluate the exact structure of product nanobiocomposite. The FE-SEM images reveal the presence of spherical shapes exhibiting a narrow size range and homogeneous distribution, measuring between 30 and 35 nm in diameter. The VSM analysis demonstrates the superparamagnetic properties of the XG hydrogel/SF/Fe3O4 nanobiocomposite, exhibiting a magnetic saturation of 54 emu/g at room temperature. The biological response of the nanobiocomposite scaffolds was assessed through cell viability and red blood cell hemolytic assays. MCF10A cells were exposed to a concentration of 1.75 mg/mL of the nanobiocomposite, and after 2 and 3 days, the cell viability was found to be 96.95 % and 97.02 %, respectively. The hemolytic effect was nearly 0 % even at higher concentrations (2 mg/mL). Furthermore, the magnetic nanobiocomposite showed excellent potential for hyperthermia applications, with a maximum specific absorption rate of 7 W/g for 1 mg/mL of the sample under a magnetic field in different frequencies (100, 200, 300, and 400 MHz) and 5 to 20 min time intervals.

Supramolecular host-guest nanosystems for overcoming cancer drug resistance

Cancer drug resistance has become one of the main challenges for the failure of chemotherapy, greatly limiting the selection and use of anticancer drugs and dashing the hopes of cancer patients. The emergence of supramolecular host-guest nanosystems has brought the field of supramolecular chemistry into the nanoworld, providing a potential solution to this challenge. Compared with conventional chemotherapeutic platforms, supramolecular host-guest nanosystems can reverse cancer drug resistance by increasing drug uptake, reducing drug efflux, activating drugs, and inhibiting DNA repair. Herein, we summarize the research progress of supramolecular host-guest nanosystems for overcoming cancer drug resistance and discuss the future research direction in this field. It is hoped that this review will provide more positive references for overcoming cancer drug resistance and promoting the development of supramolecular host-guest nanosystems.

Functionalized Calixarenes as Promising Antibacterial Drugs to Face Antimicrobial Resistance

Since the discovery of polyphenolic resins 150 years ago, the study of polymeric compounds named calix[n]arene has continued to progress, and those skilled in the art perfectly know now how to modulate this phenolic ring. Consequently, calix[n]arenes are now used in a large range of applications and notably in therapeutic fields. In particular, the calix[4]arene exhibits multiple possibilities for regioselective polyfunctionalization on both of its rims and offers researchers the possibility of precisely tuning the geometry of their structures. Thus, in the crucial research of new antibacterial active ingredients, the design of calixarenes finds its place perfectly. This review provides an overview of the work carried out in this aim towards the development of intrinsically active prodrogues or metallic calixarene complexes. Out of all the work of the community, there are some excellent activities emerging that could potentially place these original structures in a very good position for the development of new active ingredients.

Current perspectives and trends in nanoparticle drug delivery systems in breast cancer: bibliometric analysis and review

The treatment of breast cancer (BC) is a serious challenge due to its heterogeneous nature, multidrug resistance (MDR), and limited therapeutic options. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems (NDDSs) represent a promising tool for overcoming toxicity and chemotherapy drug resistance in BC treatment. No bibliometric studies have yet been published on the research landscape of NDDS-based treatment of BC. In this review, we extracted data from 1,752 articles on NDDS-based treatment of BC published between 2012 and 2022 from the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) database. VOSviewer, CiteSpace, and some online platforms were used for bibliometric analysis and visualization. Publication trends were initially observed: in terms of geographical distribution, China and the United States had the most papers on this subject. The highest contributing institution was Sichuan University. In terms of authorship and co-cited authorship, the most prolific author was Yu Zhang. Furthermore, Qiang Zhang and co-workers have made tremendous achievements in the field of NDDS-based BC treatment. The article titled "Nanomedicine in cancer therapy: challenges, opportunities, and clinical applications" had the most citations. The Journal of Controlled Release was one of the most active publishers in the field. "Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries" was the most cited reference. We also analysed "hot" and cutting-edge research for NDDSs in BC treatment. There were nine topic clusters: "tumour microenvironment," "nanoparticles (drug delivery)," "breast cancer/triple-negative breast cancer," "combination therapy," "drug release (pathway)," "multidrug resistance," "recent advance," "targeted drug delivery", and "cancer nanomedicine." We also reviewed the core themes of research. In summary, this article reviewed the application of NDDSs in the treatment of BC.

Capturing the Recognition Dynamics of para-Sulfonato-calix[4]arenes by Cytochrome c: Toward a Quantitative Free Energy Assessment

Calix[n]arenes' selective recognition of protein surfaces covers a broad range of timely applications, from controlling protein assembly and crystallization to trapping partially disordered proteins. Here, the interaction of para-sulfonated calix-[4]-arenes with cytochrome c is investigated through all-atom, explicit water molecular dynamics simulations which allow characterization of two binding sites in quantitative agreement with experimental evidence. Free energy calculations based on the MM-PBSA and the attach-pull-release (APR) methods highlight key residues implicated in the recognition process and provide binding free energy results in quantitative agreement with isothermal titration calorimetry. Our study emphasizes the role of MD simulations to capture and describe the "walk" of sulfonated calix-[4]-arenes on the cytochrome c surface, with the arginine R13 as a pivotal interacting residue. Our MD investigation allows, through the quasi-harmonic multibasin (QHMB) method, probing an allosteric reinforcement of several per-residue interactions upon calixarene binding, which suggests a more complex mode of action of these supramolecular auxiliaries.

Electrochemical Sensing of Glucose Using Glucose Oxidase/PEDOT:4-Sulfocalix [4]arene/MXene Composite Modified Electrode

Glucose is one of the most important monosaccharides found in the food, as a part of more complex structures, which is a primary energy source for the brain and body. Thus, the monitoring of glucose concentration is more important in food and biological samples in order to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Herein, an electrochemical glucose biosensor was fabricated by immobilization of glucose oxidase (GOX) onto poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):4-sulfocalix [4]arene (PEDOT:SCX)/MXene modified electrode. For this purpose, firstly, PEDOT was synthesized in the presence of SCX (counterion) by the chemical oxidative method. Secondly, MXene (a 2D layered material) was synthesized by using a high-temperature furnace under a nitrogen atmosphere. After that, PEDOT:SCX/MXene (1:1) dispersion was prepared by ultrasonication which was later utilized to prepare PEDOT:SCX/MXene hybrid film. A successful formation of PEDOT:SCX/MXene film was confirmed by HR-SEM, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), and Raman spectroscopies. Due to the biocompatibility nature, successful immobilization of GOX was carried out onto chitosan modified PEDOT:SCX/MXene/GCE. Moreover, the electrochemical properties of PEDOT:SCX/MXene/GOX/GCE was studied through cyclic voltammetry and amperometry methods. Interestingly, a stable redox peak of FAD-GOX was observed at a formal potential of –0.435 V on PEDOT:SCX/MXene/GOX/GCE which indicated a direct electron transfer between the enzyme and the electrode surface. PEDOT:SCX/MXene/GOX/GCE also exhibited a linear response against glucose concentrations in the linear range from 0.5 to 8 mM. The effect of pH, sensors reproducibility, and repeatability of the PEDOT:SCX/MXene/GOX/GCE sensor were studied. Finally, this new biosensor was successfully applied to detect glucose in commercial fruit juice sample with satisfactory recovery.

Synthesis of biocompatible nanocrystalline cellulose against folate receptors as a novel carrier for targeted delivery of doxorubicin

We designed amine-functionalized nanocrystalline cellulose grafted folic acid/magnetic nanoparticles (AF-NCC/Fe3O4 NPs) against folate receptors for targeted delivery of doxorubicin (DOX). Toxicity is a major side effect of DOX, damaging vital organs such as the heart, kidney, and liver; for example, it causes dilated cardiomyopathy and hepatotoxicity. Accordingly, we aimed to reduce this adverse effect and increase the targeted delivery of DOX to the right point of cancer cells by using the unique features of cancer cells. The characterizations were approved in each step using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), zeta potential, and dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis techniques. Encapsulation efficacy of AF-NCC/Fe3O4 NPs was 99.6%; drug release investigations showed excellent stability in physiological conditions (pH ∼ 7.4) and a high release rate in the low pH condition of cancer environments (pH ∼ 5.0). The hemolysis assay and Masson's trichrome and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining results showed that the nanocarrier was entirely biocompatible. In vitro cell viability study approved that the designed nanocarrier increased the therapeutic effects of DOX on Saos-2 cells. The cellular internalization results displayed a high percentage of uptake within 2 h. Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was applied for the evaluation of tumor protein p53 (p53), p21, and Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax). DOX exerted its effects through DNA damage and oxidative stress that led to p53 upregulation, and p53 inhibited cell cycle progression. This arrest initiated apoptosis and inhibited cell migration. In summary, encapsulating DOX in AF-NCC/Fe3O4 NPs dramatically decreases the toxic effects of this chemotherapeutic agent on vital organs, especially on the heart. This smart nanocarrier increases the delivery of DOX using acid folic on its surface and also enhances the DOX release in the acidic environment of cancer cells. DOX exerts its therapeutic effects by the initiation of apoptosis and inhibition of migration.

Role of Calixarene in Chemotherapy Delivery Strategies

Since cancer is a multifactorial disease with a high mortality rate, the study of new therapeutic strategies is one of the main objectives in modern research. Numerous chemotherapeutic agents, although widely used, have the disadvantage of being not very soluble in water or selective towards cancerous cells, with consequent side effects. Therefore, in recent years, a greater interest has emerged in innovative drug delivery systems (DDSs) such as calixarene, a third-generation supramolecular compound. Calixarene and its water-soluble derivatives show good biocompatibility and have low cytotoxicity. Thanks to their chemical–physical characteristics, calixarenes can be easily functionalized, and by itself can encapsulate host molecules forming nanostructures capable of releasing drugs in a controlled way. The encapsulation of anticancer drugs in a calixarene derivate improves their bioavailability and efficacy. Thus, the use of calixarenes as carriers of anticancer drugs could reduce their side effects and increase their affinity towards the target. This review summarizes the numerous research advances regarding the development of calixarene nanoparticles capable of encapsulating various anticancer drugs.

A Lysine-Functionalized Graphene Oxide-Based Nanoplatform for Delivery of Fluorouracil to A549 Human Lung Cancer Cells: A Comparative Study

BACKGROUND

Today, increasing attention is being paid to the application of biocompatible polymers as drug carriers with low cytotoxicity in drug delivery systems to enhance the therapeutic effects of anticancer agents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, a biocompatible synthetic polymer (grafted on graphene oxide), composed of N-isopropylacrylamide and 1-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone with L-lysine segments (Lys/PNIPAM-PVP/GO), was developed as a nano-vehicle for the drug. This platform was used for the delivery of fluorouracil (FU) to A549 human lung cancer cells. The superior characteristics of the platform included low-cost precursors, easy synthesis, and the presence of many functional groups for loading drugs. To determine and compare the cytotoxic effects of free FU and its formulated form on the A549 cells, MTT assay was performed; the results showed no significant toxicity difference between the two treated groups (free and formulated FU). For further evaluations, cellular uptake assays were performed via fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry.

RESULTS

Both analyses revealed the low internalization of nano-vehicle into the A549 cells, with 4.31% and 8.75% cellular uptakes in the first two and four hours of treatment. Therefore, the low penetration rate reduced the toxicity of drug-loaded nano-vehicle.

CONCLUSION

Finally, DAPI staining and Annexin V-FITC staining were performed as complementary techniques to determine cell apoptosis.

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Combined with Cytosine Arabinoside Show Anti-Leukemia Stem Cell Effects on Acute Myeloid Leukemia by Regulating Reactive Oxygen Species

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML), initiated and maintained by leukemia stem cells (LSCs), is often relapsed or refractory to therapy. The present study aimed at assessing the effects of nanozyme-like Fe3O4 nanoparticles (IONPs) combined with cytosine arabinoside (Ara-C) on LSCs in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

The CD34+CD38-LSCs, isolated from human AML cell line KG1a by a magnetic activated cell sorting method, were treated with Ara-C, IONPs, and Ara-C+ IONPs respectively in vitro. The cellular proliferation, apoptosis, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the related molecular expression levels in LSCs were analyzed using flow cytometry, RT-qPCR, and Western blot. The nonobese diabetic/severe combined immune deficiency mice were transplanted with LSCs or non-LSCs via tail vein, and then the mice were treated with Ara-C, IONPs and IONPs plus Ara-C, respectively. The therapeutic effects on the AML bearing mice were further evaluated.

RESULTS

LSCs indicated stronger cellular proliferation, more clone formation, and more robust resistance to Ara-C than non-LSCs. Compared with LSCs treated with Ara-C alone, LSCs treated with IONPs plus Ara-C showed a significant increase in apoptosis and ROS levels that might be regulated by nanozyme-like IONPs via improving the expression of pro-oxidation molecule gp91-phox but decreasing the expression of antioxidation molecule superoxide dismutase 1. The in vivo results suggested that, compared with the AML bearing mice treated with Ara-C alone, the mice treated with IONPs plus Ara-C markedly reduced the abnormal leukocyte numbers in peripheral blood and bone marrow and significantly extended the survival of AML bearing mice.

CONCLUSION

IONPs combined with Ara-C showed the effectiveness on reducing AML burden in the mice engrafted with LSCs and extending mouse survival by increasing LSC's ROS level to induce LSC apoptosis. Our findings suggest that targeting LSCs could control the AML relapse by using IONPs plus Ara-C.

A photoluminescent folic acid-derived carbon dot functionalized magnetic dendrimer as a pH-responsive carrier for targeted doxorubicin delivery

A fluorescent folic acid carbon dot-grafted magnetic dendrimer was synthesized as a potential carrier for targeted delivery of DOX drug in an acidic medium (pH 5). The carrier showed biodegradability, high colloidal stability, and good biocompatibility towards A549 cells.

Metal-based nanoparticles for bone tissue engineering

Tissue is vital to the organization of multicellular organisms, because it creates the different organs and provides the main scaffold for body shape. The quest for effective methods to allow tissue regeneration and create scaffolds for new tissue growth has intensified in recent years. Tissue engineering has recently used some promising alternatives to existing conventional scaffold materials, many of which have been derived from nanotechnology. One important example of these is metal nanoparticles. The purpose of this review is to cover novel tissue engineering methods, paying special attention to those based on the use of metal-based nanoparticles. The unique physiochemical properties of metal nanoparticles, such as antibacterial effects, shape memory phenomenon, low cytotoxicity, stimulation of the proliferation process, good mechanical and tensile strength, acceptable biocompatibility, significant osteogenic potential, and ability to regulate cell growth pathways, suggest that they can perform as novel types of scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. The basic principles of various nanoparticle-based composites and scaffolds are discussed in this review. The merits and demerits of these particles are critically discussed, and their importance in bone tissue engineering is highlighted.

Synthesis of Core-Shell Magnetic Supramolecular Nanocatalysts based on Amino-Functionalized Calix[4]arenes for the Synthesis of 4H-Chromenes by Ultrasonic Waves

One of the most common phenol-formaldehyde cyclic oligomers from hydroxyalkylation reactions that exhibit supramolecular chemistry are calixarenes. These macrocyclic compounds are qualified to act as synthetic catalysts due to their specific features including being able to form host-guest complexes, having unique structural scaffolds and their relative ease of chemical modifications with a variety of functions on their upper rim and lower rim. Here, a functional magnetic nanocatalyst was designed and synthesized by using a synthetic amino-functionalized calix[4]arene. Its catalytic activity was evaluated in a one-pot synthesis of 2-amino-4H-chromene derivatives. Besides, this novel magnetic nanocatalyst was characterized by spectroscopic and analytical techniques such as FT-IR, EDX, FE-SEM, TEM VSM, XRD analysis.

Synthesis of Core-Shell Magnetic Supramolecular Nanocatalysts based on Amino-Functionalized Calix[4]arenes for the Synthesis of 4H-Chromenes by Ultrasonic Waves

One of the most common phenol-formaldehyde cyclic oligomers from hydroxyalkylation reactions that exhibit supramolecular chemistry are calixarenes. These macrocyclic compounds are qualified to act as synthetic catalysts due to their specific features including being able to form host-guest complexes, having unique structural scaffolds and their relative ease of chemical modifications with a variety of functions on their upper rim and lower rim. Here, a functional magnetic nanocatalyst was designed and synthesized by using a synthetic amino-functionalized calix[4]arene. Its catalytic activity was evaluated in a one-pot synthesis of 2-amino-4H-chromene derivatives. Besides, this novel magnetic nanocatalyst was characterized by spectroscopic and analytical techniques such as FT-IR, EDX, FE-SEM, TEM VSM, XRD analysis.

Para-sulfonatocalix[n]arene-based biomaterials: Recent progress in pharmaceutical and biological applications

The history, properties, and characteristics of para-sulfonato-calixarenes are described. On the one hand, the inherent antibacterial and antifungal properties against microorganisms, and on the other hand non-toxicity of these supramolecules toward human organs are analyzed. The resulting biocompatibility of para-sulfonato-calixarenes makes them potential candidates for diverse life sciences and pharmaceutical applications without significant side effects. The interactions with different drugs, the capability of drug encapsulation, delivery, and release, the formation of host-quest assemblies and inclusion complexation between para-sulfonato-calixarenes and drugs were also investigated in detail. Besides, their function in cancer treatment and their toxicity against different cancer cell lines were fully reviewed and summarized. Afterward, the capability of these macrocyclic compounds for biosensing of organic compounds, peptides and enzymes activity was highlighted. In this review, we also take a brief look at recent reports on the applications of para-sulfonato-calixarenes in fluorescence imaging and their usage as highly stable and bright probes for in vivo and in vitro imaging and sensing.

Synthesis, Crystal Structure, and Biological Activity of a Multidentate Calix[4]arene Ligand Doubly Functionalized by 2-Hydroxybenzeledene-Thiosemicarbazone

The design and synthesis of a novel tert-butyl-calix[4]arene functionalized at 1, 3 positions of the lower rim with two terminal 2-hydroxybenzeledene-thiosemicarbazone moieties is reported. The new ligand with multi-dentate chelating properties was fully characterized by several techniques: ESI-Mass spectroscopy, FT-IR, 1H-NMR, and single crystal X-ray diffraction. The solid state structure confirms that the calix[4]arene macrocycle has the expected open cone conformation, with two opposite phenyl rings inclined outwards with large angles. The conformation of the two alkoxythiosemicarbazone arms produces a molecule with a C2 point group symmetry. An interesting chiral helicity is observed, with the two thiosemicarbazone groups oriented in opposite directions like a two-blade propeller. A water molecule is encapsulated in the center of the two-blade propeller through multiple H-bond coordinations. The antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, and cytotoxic activities of the calix[4]arene-thiosemicarbazone ligand and its metal derivatives (Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, and Zn2+) were investigated. A considerable antibacterial activity (in particular against E. coli, MIC, and MBC = 31.25 μg/mL) was observed for the ligand and its metal derivatives. Significant antifungal activities against yeast (C. albicans) were also observed for the ligand (MIC = 31.25 μg/mL and MBC = 125 μg/mL) and for its Co²⁺ derivative (MIC = 62.5 μg/mL). All compounds show cytotoxicity against the tested cancerous cells. For the Saos-2 cell line, the promising anticancer activity of ligand L (IC₅₀ < 25 μg/mL) is higher than its metal derivatives. The microscopic analysis of DAPI-stained cells shows that the treated cells change in morphology, with deformation and fragmentation of the nuclei. The hemo-compatibility study demonstrated that this class of compounds are suitable candidates for further in vivo investigations.

Design of a Thiosemicarbazide-Functionalized Calix[4]arene Ligand and Related Transition Metal Complexes: Synthesis, Characterization, and Biological Studies

In this study, we synthesized a new thiosemicarbazide-functionalized calix[4]arene L and its Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, and Zn2+ transition metal complexes. For characterization several techniques were employed: Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR), 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 13C-NMR, 15N-NMR, correlation spectroscopy (COZY), nuclear Overhauser enhancement spectroscopy (NOESY), electrospray ionization (ESI)-mass spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and elemental analysis. To explore the capability of the thiosemicarbazide function hosted on a calix[4]arene scaffold for growth inhibition of bacteria, fungi, and cancerous tumor cells, a series of biological evaluations were performed. For L, the antimicrobial tests revealed a higher antibacterial activity against gram-positive Bacillus subtilis and a lower activity against gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa), whereas the gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus shows resistance. All examined metal derivatives show an enhancement of the antibacterial activity against gram-negative E. coli bacteria, with a more significant improvement for the Ni2+ and Zn2+ complexes. MTT assays showed a considerable in vitro anticancer activity of Co2+, Ni2+, and Cu2+ complexes against Saos-2 bone cancer cell lines. The activity is ascribable to the inorganic ions rather than calixarene ligand. Hemolysis assay results demonstrated that all compounds have high blood compatibility.