Lipid-Based Gliclazide Nanoparticles for Treatment of Diabetes: Formulation, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Subacute Toxicity Study

Application of 32 factorial design for loratadine-loaded nanosponge in topical gel formulation: comprehensive in-vitro and ex vivo evaluations

Loratadine (LoR) is a highly lipophilic and practically insoluble in water, hence having a low oral bioavailability. As it is formulated as topical gel, it competitively binds with the receptors, thus reducing the side-effects. The objective of this study was to prepare LoR loaded nanosponge (LoR-NS) in gel for topical delivery. Nine different formulations of emulsion were prepared by solvent evaporation method with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), ethyl cellulose (EC), and dichloromethane (DCM). Based on 32 Full Factorial Design (FFD), optimization was carried out by varying the concentration of LOR:EC ratio and stirring rate. The preparations were subjected for the evaluation of particle size (PS), in vitro release, zeta potential (ZP) and entrapment efficiency (EE). The results revealed that the NS dispersion was nanosized with sustained release profiles and significant PS. The optimised formulation was formulated and incorporated into carbopol 934P hydrogel. The formulation was then examined to surface morphological characterizations using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) which depicted spherical NS. Stability studies, undertaken for 2 months at 40 ± 2 °C/75 ± 5% RH, concluded to the stability of the formulation. The formulation did not cause skin irritation. Therefore, the prepared NS hydrogel proved to be a promising applicant for LoR as a novel drug delivery system (NDDS) for safe, sustained and controlled topical application.

Modulating the glycemic response of starch-based foods using organic nanomaterials: strategies and opportunities

Traditionally, diverse natural bioactive compounds (polyphenols, proteins, fatty acids, dietary fibers) are used as inhibitors of starch digestive enzymes for lowering glycemic index (GI) and preventing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In recent years, organic nanomaterials (ONMs) have drawn a great attention because of their ability to overcome the stability and solubility issues of bioactive. This review aimed to elucidate the implications of ONMs in lowering GI and as encapsulating agents of enzymes inhibitors. The major ONMs are presented. The mechanisms underlying the inhibition of enzymes, the stability within the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and safety of ONMs are also provided. As a result of encapsulation of bioactive in ONMs, a more pronounced inhibition of enzymes was observed compared to un-encapsulated bioactive. More importantly, the lower the size of ONMs, the higher their inhibitory effects due to facile binding with enzymes. Additionally, in vivo studies exhibited the potentiality of ONMs for protection and sustained release of insulin for GI management. Overall, regulating the GI using ONMs could be a safe, robust and viable alternative compared to synthetic drugs (acarbose and voglibose) and un-encapsulated bioactive. Future researches should prioritize ONMs in real food products and evaluate their safety on a case-by-case basis.

Chondroitin/Lactoferrin-dual functionalized pterostilbene-solid lipid nanoparticles as targeted breast cancer therapy

Breast cancer remains the leading cause of cancer-associated mortality in women. Research investigating novel therapeutic approaches is thus crucial, including phytotherapeutics. Pterostilbene (PTS) is a phytochemical agent with promising efficacy against breast cancer. Poor solubility, low bioavailability and chemical instability are major drawbacks compromising PTS functionality. Herein, novel PTS-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (PTS-SLNs) were fabricated using the ultrasonication technique. Dual-functionalization with lactoferrin (Lf) and chondroitin-sulfate (CS; CS/Lf/PTS-SLNs) was adopted as active-targeting approach. CS/Lf/PTS-SLNs demonstrated nanoparticle-size (223.42 ± 18.71 nm), low PDI (0.33 ± 0.017), acceptable zeta potential (-11.85 ± 0.07 mV) and controlled release (72.93 ± 2.93% after 24 h). In vitro studies on triple-negative MDA-MB-231 revealed prominent cytotoxicity of CS/Lf/PTS-SLNs (2.63-fold IC50 reduction), higher anti-migratory effect and cellular uptake relative to PTS-solution. The in vivo anti-tumor efficacy in an orthotopic cancer model verified the superiority of CS/Lf/PTS-SLNs; achieving 2.4-fold decrease in tumor growth compared to PTS-solution. On the molecular level, CS/Lf/PTS-SLNs enhanced suppression of VEGF, down-regulated cyclin D1 and upregulated caspase-3 and BAX, compared to PTS-solution. Also, immunohistochemical assay confirmed the higher anti-tumorigenic effect of CS/Lf/PTS-SLNs (5.87-fold decrease in Bcl-2 expression) compared to PTS-solution. Our findings highlight CS/Lf/PTS-SLNs as a promising nanoplatform for phytotherapeutic targeted-breast cancer therapy.

Preparation and evaluation of radiolabeled gliclazide parenteral nanoemulsion as a new tracer for pancreatic β-cells mass

PURPOSE

The present investigation aims to develop and evaluate a radiopharmaceutical for targeting and assessing β-cells mass based on gliclazide, an antidiabetic drug that specifically binds the sulfonylurea receptor unique to the β-cells of the pancreas.

METHODS

Conditions were optimized to radiolabel gliclazide with radioiodine via electrophilic substitution reaction. Then, it was formulated as a nanoemulsion system using olive oil and egg lecithin by hot homogenization followed by ultrasonication. The system was assessed for its suitability for parenteral administration and drug release. Then, the tracer was evaluated in silico and in vivo in normal and diabetic rats.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The labeled compound was obtained with a high radiochemical yield (99.3 ± 1.1%) and good stability (>48 h). The radiolabeled nanoemulsion showed an average droplet size of 24.7 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.21, a zeta potential of -45.3 mV, pH 7.4, an osmolality of 285.3 mOsm/kg, and viscosity of 1.24 mPa.s, indicating suitability for parenteral administration. In silico assessment suggested that the labeling did not affect the biological activity of gliclazide. The suggestion was further supported by the in vivo blocking study. Following intravenous administration of nanoemulsion, the pancreas uptake was highest in normal rats (19.57 ± 1.16 and 12 ± 0.13% ID) compared to diabetic rats (8.51 ± 0.16 and 5 ± 0.13% ID) at 1 and 4 h post-injection, respectively. All results supported the feasibility of radioiodinated gliclazide nanoemulsion as a tracer for pancreatic β-cells.

Application of Nanoparticles: Diagnosis, Therapeutics, and Delivery of Insulin/Anti-Diabetic Drugs to Enhance the Therapeutic Efficacy of Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins due to a deficiency of insulin secretion or failure to respond to insulin secreted from pancreatic cells, which leads to high blood glucose levels. DM is one of the top four noncommunicable diseases and causes of death worldwide. Even though great achievements were made in the management and treatment of DM, there are still certain limitations, mainly related to the early diagnosis, and lack of appropriate delivery of insulin and other anti-diabetic agents. Nanotechnology is an emerging field in the area of nanomedicine and NP based anti-diabetic agent delivery is reported to enhance efficacy by increasing bioavailability and target site accumulation. Moreover, theranostic NPs can be used as diagnostic tools for the early detection and prevention of diseases owing to their unique biological, physiochemical, and magnetic properties. NPs have been synthesized from a variety of organic and inorganic materials including polysaccharides, dendrimers, proteins, lipids, DNA, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, and mesoporous materials within the nanoscale size. This review focuses on the role of NPs, derived from organic and inorganic materials, in the diagnosis and treatment of DM.

3D-CEUS tracking of injectable chemo-sonodynamic therapy-enabled mop-up of residual renal cell carcinoma after thermal ablation

Thermal ablation (TA), as a minimally invasive therapeutic technique, has been extensively used to the treatment of solid tumors, such as renal cell carcinoma (RCC), which, unfortunately, still fails to overcome the high risk of local recurrence and distant metastasis since the incomplete ablation cannot be ignored due to various factors such as the indistinguishable tumor margins and limited ablation zone. Herein, we report the injectable thermosensitive hydrogel by confining curcumin (Cur)-loaded hollow mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles (Cur@HMON@gel) which can locate in tumor site more than half a month and mop up the residual RCC under ultrasound (US) irradiation after transforming from colloidal sol status to elastic gel matrix at physiological temperature. Based on the US-triggered accelerated diffusion of the model chemotherapy drug with multi-pharmacologic functions, the sustained and controlled release of Cur has been demonstrated in vitro. Significantly, US is employed as an external energy to trigger Cur, as a sonosensitizer also, to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) for sonodynamic tumor therapy (SDT) in parallel. Tracking by the three-dimensional contrast-enhanced ultrasound (3D-CEUS) imaging, the typical decreased blood perfusions have been observed since the residual xenograft tumor after incomplete TA were effectively suppressed during the chemo-sonodynamic therapy process. The high in vivo biocompatibility and biodegradability of the multifunctional nanoplatform confined by thermogel provide the potential of their further clinical translation for the solid tumor eradication under the guidance and monitoring of 3D-CEUS.

Pharmacokinetics and Anti-Diabetic Studies of Gliclazide Nanosuspension

Gliclazide (GCZ), an antidiabetic medication, has poor solubility and limited oral bioavailability due to substantial first-pass metabolism. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to optimize and formulate a GCZ nanosuspension (NS) employing the antisolvent precipitation technique. A three-factor, three-level Box–Behnken design (BBD) was used to examine the impact of the primary formulation factors (drug concentration, stabilizer, and surfactant %) on particle size. The optimized NS contains 29.6 mg/mL drug, 0.739% lecithin, and 0.216% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Under scanning microscopy, the topography of NS revealed spherical particles. Furthermore, NS had a much better saturation solubility than the pure material, which resulted in a rapid dissolving rate, which was attributed to the amorphous structure and smaller particle size of the NS particles. Studies on intestinal permeability using the in vitro noneverted intestinal sac gut method (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) and single-pass intestinal permeability (SPIP) techniques showed that the effective permeability was also increased by more than 3 fold. In the pharmacokinetic study, the C_max and AUC_0–t values of NS were approximately 3.35- and 1.9-fold higher than those of the raw medication and marketed formulation (MF). When compared to plain drug and commercial formulations, the antidiabetic efficacy of NS demonstrated that it had a significant impact on lowering glucose levels.

Physicochemical Characterizations and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation of Pentazocine Solid Lipid Nanoparticles against Inflammatory Pain Model

Pentazocine (PTZ), a narcotic-antagonist analgesic, has been extensively used in the treatment of initial carcinogenic or postoperative pain. Hepatic first-pass metabolism results in low oral bioavailability and high dose wastage. Herein, 10 mg (-)-Pentazocine (HPLC-grade) was incorporated to solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) using a double water-oil-water (w/o/w) emulsion by solvent emulsification–evaporation technique, followed by high shear homogenization to augment its oral bioavailability, considering the lymphatic uptake. The resulting SLNs were characterized for zeta potential (ZP), particle size (PS), and polydispersity index (PDI) using a zetasizer. The entrapment efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) were calculated. Chemical interactions, through the identification of active functional groups, were assessed by Fourier-transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The nature (crystallinity) of the SLNs was determined by X-ray diffractometry (XRD). The surface morphology was depicted by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In vitro (in Caco-2 cells) and in vivo (in male Wistar rats) investigations were carried out to evaluate the PTZ release behavior and stability, as well as the cellular permeation, cytotoxicity, systemic pharmacokinetics, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidative activities of PTZ-loaded SLNs, mainly compared to free PTZ (marketed conventional dosage form). The optimized PTZ-loaded SLN2 showed significantly higher in vitro cellular permeation and negligible cytotoxicity. The in vivo bioavailability and pharmacokinetics parameters (t1/2, Cmax) of the PTZ-loaded SLNs were also significantly improved, and the nociception and inflammation, following carrageenan-induced inflammatory pain, were markedly reduced. Concordantly, PTZ-loaded SLNs showed drastic reduction in the oxidative stress (e.g., malonaldehyde (MDA)) and proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., Interleukin (IL)-1β, -6, and TNF-α). The histological features of the paw tissue following, carrageenan-induced inflammation, were significantly improved. Taken together, the results demonstrated that PTZ-loaded SLNs can improve the bioavailability of PTZ by bypassing the hepatic metabolism via the lymphatic uptake, for controlled and sustained drug delivery.

Development and Optimization of Hybrid Polymeric Nanoparticles of Apigenin: Physicochemical Characterization, Antioxidant Activity and Cytotoxicity Evaluation

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in females and ranked second after skin cancer. The use of natural compounds is a good alternative for the treatment of breast cancer with less toxicity than synthetic drugs. The aim of the present study is to develop and characterize hybrid Apigenin (AN) Nanoparticles (NPs) for oral delivery (AN-NPs). The hybrid AN-NPs were prepared by the self-assembly method using lecithin, chitosan and TPGS. Further, the NPs were optimized by Box-Behnken design (3-factor, 3-level). The hybrid NPs were evaluated for particle size (PS), entrapment efficiency (EE), zeta potential (ZP), and drug release. The optimized hybrid NPs (ON2), were further evaluated for solid state characterization, permeation, antioxidant, cytotoxicity and antimicrobial study. The formulation (ON2) exhibited small PS of 192.6 ± 4.2 nm, high EE 69.35 ± 1.1%, zeta potential of +36.54 mV, and sustained drug release (61.5 ± 2.5% in 24 h), as well as significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced drug permeation and antioxidant activity. The IC₅₀ of pure AN was found to be significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the formulation (ON2). It also showed significantly greater (p < 0.05) antibacterial activity than pure AN against Bacillus subtilis and Salmonella typhimurium. From these findings, it revealed that a hybrid AN polymeric nanoparticle is a good carrier for the treatment of breast cancer.

Pharmacoscintigraphic evaluation and antidiabetic efficacy of gliclazide-loaded 99mTc-labelled mucoadhesive microspheres

Background

The current study was carried out to evaluate the possible application of Musa balbisiana starch in formulation of mucoadhesive microsphere for oral delivery of gliclazide (GLZ). The study objective was to improve the oral bioavailability along with prolongation of its duration of action for a better glycaemic control. Ionic gelation technique was employed in formulating the dosage form. Optimization of the batches was carried out by response surface methodology using 32 full factorial designs. The microsphere prepared was characterized for several parameters along with its in vitro release study. The gastrointestinal transit of the optimized batch of prepared microspheres after oral administration was studied in rabbits by using the gamma scintigraphy technique utilizing 99mTc as the labelling agent in the presence of stannous chloride. Also, the optimized batch was studied for its pharmacokinetic parameters. Moreover, the antidiabetic efficacy of the prepared microsphere was evaluated in rats by using the streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic model.

Results

The factorial design experiment resulted in an optimum formulation coded as F8. The compatible nature of the drug and excipient was revealed from FTIR, DSC and IST studies. The scanning electron micrographs also showed the occurrence of spherical microspheres having a smooth surface. The in vitro release study provided an evidence of an initial burst effect that was followed by a prolong release phase. The pharmacokinetic parameters justified the ability of the prepared dosage form in sustaining the drug release with a 2.7-fold enhancement in drug bioavailability. The images obtained during the gamma scintigraphy study suggested the gastro-retentive nature of the dosage form with the gastro-retentive ability for more than 4 h. Also, the pharmacodynamics study carried out in diabetic rat model confirmed about the better efficacy of the dosage form in lowering the elevated blood glucose level.

Conclusion

The overall study data provide valuable information about the potential of this banana starch in formulation of a mucoadhesive dosage form that can be used for enhancement of bioavailability of drug-like gliclazide which in turn can provide a beneficial effect in the management of diabetes.

Bioavailability and Antidiabetic Activity of Gliclazide-Loaded Cubosomal Nanoparticles

In this study, gliclazide-loaded cubosomal particles were prepared for improving the oral bioavailability and antidiabetic activity of gliclazide. Four formulations of gliclazide-loaded cubosomal nanoparticles dispersions were prepared by the emulsification method using four different concentrations of glyceryl monooleate (GMO) and poloxamer 407 (P407) as the stabilizer. The prepared formulations were in vitro and in vivo evaluated. In vitro, the prepared gliclazide-loaded cubosomal dispersions exhibited disaggregated regular poly-angular particles with a nanometer-sized particle range from 220.60 ± 1.39 to 234.00 ± 2.90 nm and entrapped 73.84 ± 3.03 to 88.81 ± 0.94 of gliclazide. In vitro gliclazide release from cubosomal nanoparticles revealed an initially higher drug release during the first 2 h in acidic pH medium; subsequently, a comparatively higher drug release in alkaline medium relative to gliclazide suspension was observed. An in vivo absorption study in rats revealed a two-fold increase in the bioavailability of gliclazide cubosomal formulation relative to plain gliclazide suspension. Moreover, the study of in vivo hypoglycemic activity indicated that a higher percentage reduction in glucose level was observed after the administration of gliclazide cubosomal nanoparticles to rats. In conclusion, gliclazide-loaded cubosomal nanoparticles could be a promising delivery system for improving the oral absorption and antidiabetic activity of gliclazide.

Hybrid lipid core chitosan-TPGS shell nanocomposites as a promising integrated nanoplatform for enhanced oral delivery of sulpiride in depressive disorder therapy

Sulpiride (SUL), a benzamide derivative, acts as a multitarget drug with extensive biological properties. However, being a P-glycoprotein efflux substrate with a limited oral bioavailability imposes a challenge to its clinical efficacy. The current research explores the impact of tailored hybrid lipid-polysaccharide nanocomposites in augmenting the biological performance of SUL. Chitosan-graft-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) copolymers were synthesized and integrated as a polysaccharide shell into a SUL-loaded lipid nanocore. The optimized nanohybrids revealed a nanocore-shell structure with 110.1 nm particle size, 23.7 mV zeta potential, 85.42% encapsulation efficiency, a pH-dependent-release profile, and an acceptable mucoadhesive tendency. Employing TPGS into the chitosan backbone alleviated the cellular internalization of nanohybrids into the Caco-2 intestinal cells and hence increased the intestinal permeation and the oral bioavailability of SUL by 3.3, and 8.7-folds, respectively. Reserpine-induced depression rat model confirmed the superior antidepressant activity of nanohybrids, compared with free SUL and a marketed product. The nanohybrids exhibited 1.87- and 1.47-folds enhancement in both serotonin and dopamine levels, respectively. Additionally, nanohybrids were shown to attenuate brain oxidative stress state and SUL irritant effect on different body tissues. Overall, the newly tailored nanohybrids pave the way for an advance in the field of oral drug delivery.

Identification of Prognostic Signature and Gliclazide as Candidate Drugs in Lung Adenocarcinoma

Background

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is the most common pathological type of lung cancer, with high incidence and mortality. To improve the curative effect and prolong the survival of patients, it is necessary to find new biomarkers to accurately predict the prognosis of patients and explore new strategy to treat high-risk LUAD.

Methods

A comprehensive genome-wide profiling analysis was conducted using a retrospective pool of LUAD patient data from the previous datasets of Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) including GSE18842, GSE19188, GSE40791 and GSE50081 and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Differential gene analysis and Cox proportional hazard model were used to identify differentially expressed genes with survival significance as candidate prognostic genes. The Kaplan–Meier with log-rank test was used to assess survival difference. A risk score model was developed and validated using TCGA-LUAD and GSE50081. Additionally, The Connectivity Map (CMAP) was used to predict drugs for the treatment of LUAD. The anti-cancer effect and mechanism of its candidate drugs were studied in LUAD cell lines.

Results

We identified a 5-gene signature (KIF20A, KLF4, KRT6A, LIFR and RGS13). Risk Score (RS) based on 5-gene signature was significantly associated with overall survival (OS). Nomogram combining RS with clinical pathology parameters could potently predict the prognosis of patients with LUAD. Moreover, gliclazide was identified as a candidate drug for the treatment of high-RS LUAD. Finally, gliclazide was shown to induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in LUAD cells possibly by targeting CCNB1, CCNB2, CDK1 and AURKA.

Conclusion

This study identified a 5-gene signature that can predict the prognosis of patients with LUAD, and Gliclazide as a potential therapeutic drug for LUAD. It provides a new direction for the prognosis and treatment of patients with LUAD.

Formulation, Pharmacokinetics evaluation, and IVIVC Assessment of Gliclazide Multiparticulates in Rat Model

In vitro and in vivo studies of gliclazide (GLZ)-loaded freeze-dried alginate-gelatin (AL-GL) beads were carried out, aiming to modify its oral bioavailability. Crosslinked freeze-dried GLZ AL-GL beads (particle size: 1.5- and 3.0-mm) were prepared. In vitro evaluation of GLZ AL-GL beads included SEM, DSC, FT-IR, and release rate study in gradient media. In vivo study was single-dose (4 mg/kg), randomized, parallel-group design, two-treatment (T: test GLZ AL-GL beads and R: reference product Diamicron® 30-mg MR tablet) conducted in 96 healthy rats. Each group was subdivided into 2 sub-groups (G1 and G2) having different blood sampling schemes for up to 72 h. Assessment of level A in-vitro-in-vivo correlation (IVIVC) model was carried out. AL-GL beads successfully increased GLZ release rate compared to R. GLZ percent released (Q_4h) was 109.34, 86.85, and 43.43% for 1.5-mm and 3.0-mm beads and R, respectively. DSC analysis confirmed the interaction of AL-GL via crosslinking. No chemical interaction of GLZ has occurred as proved by FT-IR. Relative bioavailability (T/R) for AUC_0-∞ was 132.45% for G1 and 146.16% for G2. No significant differences between T and R in the primary pharmacokinetic parameters were determined. T_max values were found to be earlier in the case of G1 than those of G2. A secondary absorption peak of GLZ was clearly detected in the case of R while its sharpness was minimized in T. High IVIVC was established, and hence, the proposed in vitro release model perfectly correlated with the in vivo study. The current study design might be a platform to enable panoramic view for GLZ variability in vivo.

Precisely Fabricated Sulpiride-Loaded Nanolipospheres with Ameliorated Oral Bioavailability and Antidepressant Activity

BACKGROUND

Sulpiride (SUL), is a selective antidopaminergic drug that had extensive biological activities. However, its sparingly aqueous solubility and limited gastrointestinal permeability lead to scanty oral bioavailability which hinders its clinical efficacy.

OBJECTIVE

SUL-loaded lipospheres (SUL-LPS) were designed to serve as an oral biocompatible nanovector for improving SUL permeability as well as conquering its low oral absorption and then in turn enhancing its antidepressant action.

METHODS

SUL-LPS were fabricated via two processing techniques namely, melt emulsification and solvent evaporation. The impact of different lipid cores, phospholipid shells together with various surfactant concentrations and types on the lipospheres properties were screened. Detailed physicochemical elucidations were performed followed by ex vivo permeation appraisal using the non-everted intestine model. The pharmacokinetic parameters of SUL-LPS, free SUL and marketed product were assessed following oral administration to healthy rats. Reserpine-induced depression rat model was used to assess the antidepressant action of SUL-LPS on which full behavioural and biochemical analysis was conducted. Safety attributes of nanoencapsulated SUL on the brain and other internal organs were evaluated.

RESULTS

The optimum LPS revealed an excellent nanosize with a narrow PdI, negative zeta potential and acceptable entrapment efficiency of 68.62 nm, 0.242, -30.4 mV and 84.12%, respectively. SUL-LPS showed a sustained release pattern and 2.1-fold enhancement in the intestinal permeation parameters with low mucin interaction. Oral pharmacokinetic appraisal exhibited that LPS provided 3.4-fold improvement in SUL oral bioavailability together with long-circulating properties, relative to the free drug. Pharmacodynamic study confirmed the superior antidepressant action of SUL-LPS as evident by 1.6 and 1.25-fold elevation in the serotonin and dopamine expressions, respectively. Meanwhile, nanotoxicological appraisal proved the biocompatibility of SUL-LPS upon repetitive oral administration.

CONCLUSION

Rationally designed lipospheres hold promising in vitro and in vivo characteristics for efficient delivery of SUL with high oral bioavailability, antidepressant activity together with a good safety profile.

PAMPA model of gliclazide permeability: The impact of probiotic bacteria and bile acids

Gut microbiota and bile acids possess the ability to modify absorption and pharmacokinetic profile of numerous drugs. Since the variability of gliclazide response in patients cannot be explained only by genetic factors, the influence of gut microbiota and bile acids should be considered. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of probiotic bacteria and bile acids on the gliclazide permeability. The permeability of gliclazide with and without probiotic bacteria and bile acids (cholic acid, CA and deoxycholic acid, DCA) was tested using in vitro PAMPA model, at three different pH values (5.8, 6.5 and 7.4). Concentrations of gliclazide were determined by HPLC analysis. The interactions of gliclazide and bile acids were also investigated by molecular mechanics calculations (MM2). Probiotic bacteria significantly increased the permeability of gliclazide across the PAMPA membrane at all observed pH values while the total amount of gliclazide during incubation with bacteria was significantly reduced at pH 7.4, which could be a consequence of partial metabolism of the drug by enzymes of probiotic bacteria. Bile acids decreased the permeability of gliclazide through PAMPA membrane, with more pronounced effects of DCA, by forming more stable complexes with gliclazide. Given that probiotic bacteria and bile acids are naturally present in the gut and that each individual has a specific bacterial fingerprint, future research should extend the explanation of their effect on the gliclazide bioavailability and therapy individualization in in vivo conditions.

Lyophilized Drug-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Formulated with Beeswax and Theobroma Oil

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have the potential to enhance the systemic availability of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) or reduce its toxicity through uptake of the SLNs from the gastrointestinal tract or controlled release of the API, respectively. In both aspects, the responses of the lipid matrix to external challenges is crucial. Here, we evaluate the effects of lyophilization on key responses of 1:1 beeswax-theobroma oil matrix SLNs using three model drugs: amphotericin B (AMB), paracetamol (PAR), and sulfasalazine (SSZ). Fresh SLNs were stable with sizes ranging between 206.5-236.9 nm. Lyophilization and storage for 24 months (4-8 °C) caused a 1.6- and 1.5-fold increase in size, respectively, in all three SLNs. Zeta potential was >60 mV in fresh, stored, and lyophilized SLNs, indicating good colloidal stability. Drug release was not significantly affected by lyophilization up to 8 h. Drug release percentages at end time were 11.8 ± 0.4, 65.9 ± 0.04, and 31.4 ± 1.95% from fresh AMB-SLNs, PAR-SLNs, and SSZ-SLNs, respectively, and 11.4 ± 0.4, 76.04 ± 0.21, and 31.6 ± 0.33% from lyophilized SLNs, respectively. Thus, rate of release is dependent on API solubility (AMB < SSZ < PAR). Drug release from each matrix followed the Higuchi model and was not affected by lyophilization. The above SLNs show potential for use in delivering hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs.

Novel Swellable/Expandable Gastroretentive Floating Films of Gliclazide Folded in Capsule Shell for the Effective Management of Diabetes Mellitus: Formulation Development, Optimization and In Vitro Evaluation

Background:

Gliclazide (GLZ) belongs to the second-generation of sulphonylureas; it is a drug of choice for the management of type II DM. It belongs to BCS Class II. The major site of drug absorption for GLZ is the stomach; it displays variation in the drug absorption rate and bioavailability due to the shorter gastric retention time. The floating mechanism gets affected when the gastric fluid level is not sufficiently higher, which ultimately obstructs the floating behavior, which is the major limitation of reported formulations. This limitation can be overcome by folding the film into the capsule shell dissolved in the gastric fluid and the film swells/expands to dimensions higher than pylorus sphincter (12mm), thus preventing its evacuation.

Objective:

The study aims to explore the floating mechanism in the design of films along with a tendency to expand by swelling and unfolding by utilizing a mixture of hydrophilic and hydrophobic polymer to achieve the controlled drug delivery and prolonged gastric retention of drug.

Methods:

The gastroretentive floating films were formulated by the solvent casting technique using 32 full factorial designs and subjected to in vitro evaluation parameters, drug-excipient compatibility, Xray diffraction and accelerated stability study.

Results:

The pre-formulation study established the purity and identification of a drug. FTIR study confirmed no drug excipient interaction. F3, F6, and F9 were optimized based on in vitro floating characteristics, swelling/expanding ability, and unfolding time. All developed formulations were unfolded within 14-22 min after capsule disintegration. The F3 was selected as the final formulation as its ability to control the release of the drug for 24 hrs followed by zero-order kinetics having super case 2 transport. XRD confirmed the amorphousness of the drug within the formulation. The stability study results revealed that the formulation was quite stable at extreme storage conditions.

Conclusion:

The developed novel formulation has good potential for the effective management and treatment of diabetes mellitus.

Recent advances of nanomedicine-based strategies in diabetes and complications management: Diagnostics, monitoring, and therapeutics

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder characterized by the presence of chronic hyperglycemia driven by insulin deficiency or resistance, imposing a significant global burden affecting 463 million people worldwide in 2019. This review has comprehensively summarized the application of nanomedicine with accurate, patient-friendly, real-time properties in the field of diabetes diagnosis and monitoring, and emphatically discussed the unique potential of various nanomedicine carriers (e.g., polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, microparticles, microneedles, etc.) in the management of diabetes and complications. Novel delivery systems have been developed with improved pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, excellent drug biodistribution, biocompatibility, and therapeutic efficacy, long-term action safety, as well as the improved production methods. Furthermore, the effective nanomedicine for the treatment of several major diabetic complications with significantly improved life qualities of diabetic patients were discussed in detail. Going through the literature review, several critical issues of the nanomedicine-based strategies applications need to be addressed such as stabilities and long-term safety effects in vivo, the deficiency of standard for formulation administration, feasibility of scale-up, etc. Overall, the review provides an insight into the design, advantages and limitations of novel nanomedicine application in the diagnostics, monitoring, and therapeutics of DM.

Gliclazide: Biopharmaceutics Characteristics to Discuss the Biowaiver of Immediate and Extended Release Tablets

The lists of essential medicines of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Brazil include gliclazide as an alternative to the oral antidiabetic drug of first choice, metformin, in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus because of its pharmacokinetic profile and few side effects. Thus, it is also considered by WHO and the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) as a drug candidate to biowaiver, which is the evaluation of how favorable the biopharmaceutics characteristics are in order to obtain waiver from the relative bioavailability/bioequivalence (RB/BE) studies to register new medicines. This paper presents a review about the solubility, permeability and dissolution of gliclazide. A critical analysis of the information allowed to identify gliclazide as a Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) Class II drug. Therefore, new drugs in immediate release dosage forms will not be eligible for biowaiver. Regarding the extended release dosage forms, besides the limited solubility, no information on the comparative dissolution profile was found, which would be necessary to analyze a possible biowaiver for a smaller dosage. It can be concluded that the registration of new medicines containing gliclazide must undergo RB/BE studies, since there is not enough evidence to recommend the replacement and waiver of such studies for immediate and extended release formulations.