Diagnosis, management, and long-term outcomes of rectovaginal endometriosis

Rectovaginal endometriosis with nodular smooth muscle metaplasia diagnosed via transrectal ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration cytology: An underused minimally invasive diagnostic technique?

Rectovaginal endometriosis is a severe variant of deeply infiltrating endometriosis. Laparoscopic assessment with tissue sampling remains the gold standard for diagnosis of endometriosis. However, transvaginal (TVUS) and transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) have been shown to be especially helpful in the diagnosis of deep endometriosis. We present the case of a 49-year-old female with menorrhagia, dysmenorrhea, and constipation. Upon pelvic examination, an incidental mass was palpated. A computed tomography (CT) scan revealed an anterior rectal wall mass and colonoscopy was non-diagnostic. Further work-up with MRI showed a 3.9 cm mass centered within the upper rectovaginal septum. TRUS guided fine-needle aspiration (TRUS-FNA) revealed cohesive epithelial cell groups without significant cytologic atypia and a second population of bland spindle cells. Cell block slides showed glandular epithelium with associated stroma that exhibited endometrial morphology and immunophenotype. Nodular fragments of spindle cells with smooth muscle immunophenotype and fibrosis were also present. The overall morphologic findings were consistent with rectovaginal endometriosis with nodular smooth muscle metaplasia. Medical management with nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor with radiologic follow-up was selected. Rectovaginal endometriosis represents a type of deep endometriosis usually associated with severe pelvic symptoms. Metaplastic smooth muscle cells are a frequent component of endometriosis in the rectovaginal pouch with nodular growth and may present diagnostic challenges. TRUS-FNA is a minimally invasive procedure that can provide an accurate diagnosis of endometriosis, even in this variant of deep infiltrating disease.

Rates of anastomotic leak and fistula following surgical management of bowel endometriosis: a comparison of shaving, discoid excision, and segmental resection

Endometriosis is a complex chronic inflammatory condition that can create a multitude of bothersome painful symptoms for women. Bowel endometriosis is often misdiagnosed or overlooked leading to years of suffering for many women. The surgical management of bowel endometriosis varies based on extent of disease as well as surgeon experience. Surgical treatment for bowel endometriosis is complex and a variety of intraoperative and postoperative complications must be considered. Two significant postoperative complications for bowel endometriosis include anastomotic leak and fistula formation. There is continued debate regarding the appropriate surgical treatment for bowel endometriosis. Aggressive surgery with segmental bowel resection is being utilized more cautiously, with an increase in less aggressive shaving or disc excision techniques. Historic beliefs regarding the limitations of shaving and disc excision are being challenged, and with a reduction in morbidity these less aggressive techniques are winning favor among gynecologic surgeons. Shaving, discoid excision, and segmental bowel resection are all feasible surgical management options for bowel endometriosis. Segmental resection is associated with the highest rates of both anastomotic leak and fistula formation, while shaving is associated with the lowest.

Transvaginal US of Endometriosis: Looking Beyond the Endometrioma with a Dedicated Protocol

Transvaginal sonography (TVS) is a valuable primary imaging tool for the initial evaluation and management of endometriosis, a complex multifocal disease process with a varied spectrum of clinical and morphologic features that can substantially affect quality of life. The high accuracy of TVS for the detailed mapping of disease extent, an essential process for guiding treatment strategies, is well documented. The dynamic nature of US provides added value, revealing information that is not easily addressed with other imaging modalities. As recognized by the International Deep Endometriosis Analysis Consensus Group, a dedicated standardized protocol that is used by experienced and knowledgeable operators is necessary for a complete evaluation. The four components of a dedicated TVS protocol for evaluation of pelvic endometriosis are (a) evaluation of the uterus and adnexa, (b) dedicated search for deep infiltrating endometriosis, (c) assessment of the sliding sign, and (d) detection of sonographic soft markers. These components are described, and the multiple locations and US findings of endometriosis within the pelvis are reviewed, with emphasis on the unique features of US as an extension of the physical examination. In addition to enabling evaluation of the static findings of adenomyosis, endometrioma, hydrosalpinx, hematosalpinx, and hypoechoic nodules of deep infiltrating endometriosis, dynamic TVS enables assessment of pouch of Douglas obliteration, organ mobility, and site-specific tenderness, as well as tenderness-guided imaging. The benefits of implementing a dedicated TVS protocol in terms of improved patient care are also discussed. Online supplemental material is available for this article. ^©RSNA, 2019.

Suspensory Ligaments of the Female Genital Organs: MRI Evaluation with Intraoperative Correlation

The uterus, which plays an important role in the reproductive process, provides a home for the developing fetus and so must be in a stable, though flexible, location. Various structures with suspensory ligaments help provide this berth. MRI with high spatial resolution allows us to detect and evaluate these relatively fine structures. Under physiologic conditions, MRI can be used to depict uterine and ovarian ligaments (ie, the uterosacral, cardinal, and round ligaments, as well as the suspensory ligament of the ovary). In the presence of pathologic conditions (inflammation, endometriosis, tumors), the suspensory ligaments may appear thickened or invaded, which makes their delineation easier. Understanding the normal anatomy of the suspensory ligaments of the female genital organs and using a standardized nomenclature are essential for identifying and reporting related pathologic conditions. The female pelvic anatomy and the suspensory ligaments of the female genital organs are described as depicted with MRI. Also, the compartmental anatomy of the female pelvis is explained, including the extraperitoneal pelvic spaces. Finally, a checklist is provided for structured reporting of the MRI findings in the female pelvis. Online supplemental material is available for this article. ^©RSNA, 2018.

Intraoperative enhanced imaging for detection of endometriosis: A systematic review of the literature

The diagnosis of peritoneal endometriosis during laparoscopy may be difficult due to the polymorphic aspects of the lesions. Enhanced imaging using contrast agents has potential to provide a better identification of peritoneal endometriosis. The aim of this systematic review is to provide an overview of the literature on what is known about the intraoperative laparoscopic visual enhancement of peritoneal endometriosis using contrast agents. A systematic review was done of studies about enhanced imaging during laparoscopy for endometriosis using contrast agents. Clinical studies which contained a description of imaging with a contrast agent and also reported visual findings of endometriosis during laparoscopy, were included. Nine suitable studies were identified. Intraoperative visualization of endometriosis was analyzed with or without histologic confirmation. Four studies evaluated 5-aminolevulinic acid-induced fluorescence (5-ALA), 1 study evaluated indigo carmine, 2 studies evaluated methylene blue (MB), 1 study evaluated indocyanine green (ICG) and 1 study evaluated so-called bloody peritoneal fluid painting. All studies, with a combined total of 171 included patients, showed potential of enhanced visibility of endometriosis using contrast agents. A combined total of 7 complications, all related to the use of 5-ALA, were reported. We conclude that the use of contrast-based enhanced imaging during laparoscopy is promising and that it can provide a better visualization of peritoneal endometriosis. However, based on the limited data no technique of preference can yet be identified.

Laparoscopic surgery with urinary tract reconstruction and bowel endometriosis resection for deep infiltrating endometriosis

Deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE) is the most severe form of endometriosis. It causes chronic pelvic pain, severe dysmenorrhea, deep dyspareunia, dyschezia, and dysuria, markedly impairing the quality of life of women of reproductive age. A number of randomized controlled trials on surgical and medical treatments to reduce the pain associated with endometriosis have been reported, but few have focused on this in DIE. DIE causes not only pain but also functional invasion to the urinary organs and bowel, such as hydronephrosis and bowel stenosis. In addition to DIE resection, surgical treatment involves adhesion separation as well as resection and reconstruction of the urinary organs and bowel; high-level skills are required. The severity of DIE should be evaluated preoperatively as accurately as possible. Using ENZIAN in conjunction with the AFS (The revised American Fertility Society classification of endometriosis) classification makes a more detailed assessment of DIE possible. The operative procedures used for laparoscopic resection of urinary DIE and reconstruction of the urinary organs are chosen based on the type of lesion (intrinsic/extrinsic) and length of stenosis. In addition to ureteroneocystostomy, the psoas bladder hitch and Boari bladder flap procedures are applied when necessary to extend the urinary tract. Bowel resection for bowel endometriosis is classified into classic segmental resection and conservative approaches (shaving/discoid). When these procedures are employed, it is advisable to work in consultation with urologists and gastroenterologists and to inform the patients of the associated risks and outcomes. Furthermore, postoperative medication is essential because it is difficult to conduct repeated surgeries.

Unexpected findings after surgery for suspected appendicitis rarely change treatment in pediatric patients; Results from a cohort study

BACKGROUND

To determine if non-operative treatment is safe in children with acute appendicitis, we evaluated the incidence of unexpected findings after an appendectomy in children, and the influence they have on subsequent treatment.

METHODS

A historical cohort study (January 2004-December 2014) was performed including children, aged 0-17 years, who underwent an appendectomy for the suspicion of acute appendicitis. Patients were divided based upon histopathological examination. Unexpected findings were reviewed, as well as the subsequent treatment plan.

RESULTS

In total 484 patients were included in this study. In the overall group, unexpected findings were noted in 10 (2.1%) patients of which two patients intra-operatively with a non-inflamed appendix (Ileitis terminalis N=1 and ovarian torsion N=1) and in 8 patients on histopathological examination. The latter group consisted of 4 patients with concomitant simple appendicitis (parasitic infection N=3 and Walthard cell rest N=1), two with concomitant complex appendicitis (carcinoid N=1 and parasitic infection N=1) and two patients with a non-inflamed appendix (endometriosis N=1 and parasitic infection N=1). Treatment was changed in 4 patients (<1%).

CONCLUSIONS

Results from this study corroborate the safety of non-operative strategy for acute simple appendicitis, as the occurrence of unexpected findings was low, with extremely few necessary changes of the treatment plan because of serious findings.

TYPE OF STUDY

Prognosis study.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 2 (retrospective cohort study).

Colonic Endometriosis: Dig Deeper for Diagnosis

Endometriosis is a common gynecological condition wherein there is an ectopic implantation of the uterine endometrial tissue. While several diagnostic modalities are described for the condition, laparoscopy remains the gold standard. There is still an undiscovered area to diagnose colonic endometriosis at an earlier stage. We present a case report of a reproductive age woman with cyclical rectal bleeding diagnosed with colonic endometriosis with colonoscopy and biopsy using saline injection lift and sampling technique. We in our report try to impress the fact that this differential should always be considered in the appropriate clinical setting, especially in women of childbearing age and in such cases, deeper tissue sampling techniques should be sought for, given better diagnostic yield. This may be clinically important given that it may aid in earlier diagnosis and thereby early initiation of appropriate therapy before the disease takes a complicated route. It may also be helpful in avoiding unnecessary surgery, along with the morbidity, complications and costs associated with same.

Deep pelvic endometriosis: a radiologist's guide to key imaging features with clinical and histopathologic review

While endometriosis typically affects the ovaries, deep infiltrating endometriosis can affect the gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, and deep pelvis, awareness of which is important for radiologists. Symptoms are nonspecific and can range from chronic abdominal and deep pelvic pain to nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, hematuria, and rectal bleeding. Ultrasound and computed tomography may show nonspecific soft-tissue density masses causing bowel obstruction and hydronephrosis. This constellation of presenting symptoms and imaging evidence is easily mistaken for other pathologies including infectious gastroenteritis, diverticulitis, appendicitis, and malignancy, which may lead to unnecessary surgery or mismanagement. With this, deep pelvic endometriosis should be considered in the differential diagnosis in a female patient of reproductive age who presents with such atypical symptoms, and further work up with magnetic resonance imaging is imperative for accurate diagnosis, treatment selection, and preoperative planning.

The role and significance of endomorphin-1 and μ-opioid receptor in rats with endometriosis

Endomorphin-1 (EM-1) was reported to have very high affinity and selectivity for μ-opioid receptor (MOR). However, it remained unclear whether EM-1 and MOR were involved in the pathologies of endometriosis resulting in reduced fertility. In this study, RT-PCR, radioimmunoassay, immunohistochemistry, and Western blot were used, respectively. The results showed that the immune positive cells of EM-1 in hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries were significantly increased in endometriosis model rats, accompanied by the increase of plasma level of EM-1 and the decrease of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol (E2), and progesterone (P). Interestingly, EM-1 was negatively correlated with FSH and LH (p < 0.05). More importantly, Naloxone (MOR antagonist) can significantly reduce the levels of EM-1 in serum, hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries, while increased the levels of FSH and LH. In conclusion, our results suggested that EM-1 may be involved in the pathogenesis of the endometriosis-associated infertility by regulating hypothalamus-pituitary-ovarian axis, and Naloxone may be a new alternative drug for the treatment of endometriosis.

Endometriosis Is Associated With a Shift in MU Opioid and NMDA Receptor Expression in the Brain Periaqueductal Gray

Studies have examined how endometriosis interacts with the nervous system, but little attention has been paid to opioidergic systems, which are relevant to pain signaling. We used the autotransplantation rat model of endometriosis and allowed to progress for 60 days. The brain was collected and examined for changes in endogenous opioid peptides, mu opioid receptors (MORs), and the N-methyl-d-aspartate subunit receptor (NR1) in the periaqueductal gray (PAG), since both of these receptors can regulate PAG activity. No changes in endogenous opioid peptides in met- and leu-enkephalin or β-endorphin levels were observed within the PAG. However, MOR immunoreactivity was significantly decreased in the ventral PAG in the endometriosis group. Endometriosis reduced by 20% the number of neuronal profiles expressing MOR and reduced by 40% the NR1 profiles. Our results suggest that endometriosis is associated with subtle variations in opioidergic and glutamatergic activity within the PAG, which may have implications for pain processing.

Postoperative hormonal therapy after surgical excision of deep endometriosis

The clinical management of women with deep peritoneal endometriosis remains controversial. The debate focuses mainly on the precise role of hormonal medical treatment and surgery and on the most suitable surgical technique to be used. In particular, considering the risks of second-line surgery, prevention of recurrences after first-line surgery is a priority in this context. Post-surgical medical therapy has been advocated to improve the effectiveness of surgery and prevent recurrences. However, adjuvant therapy, i.e. a short course of 3-6 months of hormonal therapy after surgery, has been proven to be of limited or no benefit for endometriosis in general and for deep peritoneal endometriosis in particular. On the other hand, two cohort studies suggest a beneficial effect of prolonged hormonal therapy after surgery for deep endometriosis. Even if this evidence is too weak to confidently advocate systematic administration of prolonged medical therapy after surgery, we argue in favour of this approach because of the strong association of deep endometriosis with other disease forms. In fact, women operated on for deep endometriosis may also face recurrences of endometriomas, superficial peritoneal lesions and pelvic pain in general. The demonstrated high effectiveness of prolonged postoperative therapy for the prevention of endometriomas' formation and dysmenorrhea recurrence should thus receive utmost consideration in the decision-making process.

Contribution of sacral neuromodulation to manage persistent voiding dysfunction after surgery for deep infiltrating endometriosis with colorectal involvement: preliminary results

OBJECTIVE

Around 5% of women experience persistent voiding dysfunction after surgery for deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE) with colorectal involvement. The gold standard to manage persistent voiding dysfunction is intermittent self-catherization, but this treatment may reduce quality of life of the patients due to care constraints. The objective of our study was to assess the contribution of sacral neuromodulation (SNM) in the management of persistent voiding dysfunction secondary to surgery for DIE with colorectal resection.

STUDY DESIGN

Five patients referred for persistent voiding dysfunction after surgery for DIE with colorectal resection were included and fitted with a temporary SNM system to test for feasibility. This consisted of placing an electrode unilaterally next to the S3 sacral nerve root and connecting it to an external pacemaker. The patients wore the electrode and the external neurostimulator for 21 days and kept a voiding diary. The SNM test was considered positive when a 50% decrease in self-catheterization was achieved after removal of the electrode. The system was implanted permanently in patients with a positive SNM test. Urodynamic tests were performed before and after the SNM test.

RESULTS

Two of the five patients had a positive SNM test and were implanted permanently. At 40 months the first patient had completely stopped self-catheterization and the second patient was performing self-catheterization twice a day with a post voiding residue volume of less than 100ml at 52 months.

CONCLUSION

SNM could be a curative technique in some patients with persistent voiding dysfunction after surgery for DIE. Further studies are required to better select patients who might benefit from SNM testing and subsequent device implantation.

Role of colonoscopy in the diagnostic work-up of bowel endometriosis

AIM: To evaluate the accuracy of colonoscopy for the prediction of intestinal involvement in deep pelvic endometriosis.

METHODS: This prospective observational study was performed between September 2011 and July 2014. Only women with both a clinical and imaging diagnosis of deep pelvic endometriosis were included. The study was approved by the local ethics committee and written informed consent was obtained in all cases. Both colonoscopy and laparoscopy were performed by expert surgeons with a high level of expertise with these techniques. Laparoscopy was performed within 4 wk of colonoscopic examination. All hypothetical colonoscopy findings (eccentric wall thickening with or without surface nodularities and polypoid lesions with or without surface nodularities of endometriosis) were compared with laparoscopic and histological findings. We calculated the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value for the presence of colonoscopic findings of intestinal endometriosis.

RESULTS: A total of 174 consecutive women aged between 21-42 years with a diagnosis of deep pelvic endometriosis who underwent colonoscopy and surgical intervention were included in our analysis. In 76 of the women (43.6%), intestinal endometrial implants were found at surgery and histopathological examination. Specifically, 38 of the 76 lesions (50%) were characterized by the presence of serosal bowel nodules; 28 of the 76 lesions (36.8%) reached the muscularis layer; 8 of the 76 lesions (10.5%) reached the submucosa; and 2 of the 76 lesions (2.6%) reached the mucosa. Colonoscopic findings suggestive of intestinal endometriosis were detected in 7 of the 174 (4%) examinations. Colonoscopy failed to diagnose intestinal endometriosis in 70 of the 76 women (92.1%). A colonoscopic diagnosis of endometriosis was obtained in all cases of mucosal involvement, in 3 of 8 cases (37.5%) of submucosal involvement, in no cases of muscularis layer involvement and in 1 of 38 cases (2.6%) of serosa involvement. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive and negative predictive values of colonoscopy for the diagnosis of intestinal endometriosis were 7%, 98%, 85% and 58%, respectively.

CONCLUSION: Being an invasive procedure, colonoscopy should not be routinely performed in the diagnostic work-up of bowel endometriosis.

Impact of Surgical Excision of Deep Infiltrating Bowel Endometriosis on Health-Related Quality of Life: Review of Current Literature

Background

The aim of this study was to systematically review the impact of surgical excision of deep infiltrating endometriosis involving the bowel, on health-related quality of life, based on the currently available literature.

Methods

A systematic review was completed of English-language publications in the last 10 years, which had assessed the impact of surgical excision on quality of life in patients with deep infiltrating endometriosis of the bowel using standardized, validated quality-of-life questionnaires.

Results

Fourteen studies were identified. Standardized questionnaires used to assess the therapeutic impact on quality of life were the SF-36, SF-12, EHP-30, EQ-5D and 15D. Overall, women with bowel endometriosis scored lower on quality-of-life measures than the general population. Regardless of which standardized, validated questionnaire was used, surgical treatment had a positive impact on health-related quality of life.

Conclusions

Endometriosis, in particular deep infiltrating endometriosis of the bowel, has a profound impact on the quality of life of women diagnosed with the condition. Though surgical excision has a positive short-term impact, studies are needed to assess the long-term impact on quality of life in this lifelong, chronic, recurring condition.

Association between endometriosis and hyperprolactinemia in infertile women

BACKGROUND

The association of endometriosis with hyperprolactinemia is controversial.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to determine the frequency of endometriosis and association of prolactin with endometriosis in infertile women.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

256 infertile women who underwent diagnostic laparoscopy for the evaluation of infertility, referred to Fatemezahra Infertility and Reproductive Health Research Center were included in a cross-sectional study. The presence of endometriosis was evaluated. To investigate the association of endometriosis with hyperprolactinemia, the patients whose infertility was not caused by endometriosis were included as control group. Serum prolactin (PRL) level was measured in both groups. The comparison of basal serum PRL levels between the two groups was performed, using independent t-test. One way ANOVA was used to determine PRL association with endometriosis stages.

RESULTS

The frequency of endometriosis was found to be 29%. PRL levels were significantly higher in endometriosis group compared to control group (23.02±1.25 vs. 17.22±1.22 respectively, p=0.004). Statistically significant associations were found between staging of endometriosis and prolactin levels (p=0.01).

CONCLUSION

Hyperprolactinemia may be associated with endometriosis and its progression.

Employing Laparoscopic Surgery for Endometriosis

Endometriosis is a chronic, multifactorial disease, which can impact significantly on a women's quality of life. It is associated with pelvic pain, dyspareunia and intestinal disorders, and can lead to infertility. The use of laparoscopic surgery in the management of endometriosis is well documented; however, the optimal management of women with deep infiltrating disease remains controversial. This review describes the different surgical strategies for the treatment of endometriosis.