Psychiatric and physical comorbidities and pain in patients with multiple sclerosis

Attachment and negative affect on mental health and pain experience patients with Multiple Sclerosis: Mediated by coping strategies and loneliness

BACKGROUND

Multiple sclerosis and its related stressors significantly affect the mental health of people with MS. Considering the progressive and relapsing-remitting nature of the disease and somatic complaint, the Pain experience for MS patients is challenging. We examined the direct effects of Attachment and the negative affect on mental health and pain experience and the indirect effects of Attachment, negative affect, loneliness, and coping strategies on the mental health and pain experience of people with multiple sclerosis.

METHODS

Three hundred forty-five patients with MS were selected through the Iranian MS Association. Measures included the negative affect (PANAS), Adult Attachment Inventory (AAI), General Health Questionnaire (GHQ28), short-form McGill pain questionnaire (SF-mpq-2), Social and emotional loneliness scale for adults (SELSA-S), Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations(CISS-21). The present study has employed the Structural Equation Model (SEM) to investigate the direct and indirect effects of coping strategies, attachment, loneliness, and negative affect on mental health and pain experienced by individuals with MS. The fit of the model to the data was examined using the Discrepancy Function Divided by Degrees of Freedom (CMIN/DF), Normed Fit Index (NFI), TuckerLewis Index (TLI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA).

RESULTS

The fit indices results showed that the model's fit was good. Furthermore, findings indicate that 13 % (R2=13) of the pain experience Changes and 47 % (R2=47) of the mental health Changes are explained via study predictors. Negative affect directly affects mental health and pain experience, and Attachment directly affects mental health. Negative affect indirectly affects coping strategies. Attachment and Negative affect indirectly affect loneliness. Loneliness and coping strategies indirectly affect mental health and pain experience.

CONCLUSION

Study findings contribute to our understanding of the crucial structures that play a role in the mental health and pain experience of individuals with MS. Loneliness and coping strategies as mediating variables play essential roles in these people's mental health and pain experience. In the times ahead, it would be beneficial to prioritize addressing negative affect, attachment, coping strategies, and loneliness in the patients with MS' medical and psychological intervention.

Inhibition of Microglial Activation by Amitriptyline and Doxepin in Interferon-β Pre-Treated Astrocyte–Microglia Co-Culture Model of Inflammation

Depression may occur in patients with multiple sclerosis, especially during interferon-β (IFN-β) treatment, and therapy with antidepressants may be necessary. Interactions of IFN-β with antidepressants concerning glia-mediated inflammation have not yet been studied. Primary rat co-cultures of astrocytes containing 5% (M5, consistent with “physiological” conditions) or 30% (M30, consistent with “pathological, inflammatory” conditions) of microglia were incubated with 10 ng/mL amitriptyline or doxepin for 2 h, or with 2000 U/mL IFN-β for 22 h. To investigate the effects of antidepressants on IFN-β treatment, amitriptyline or doxepin was added to IFN-β pre-treated co-cultures. An MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay was performed to measure the glial cell viability, immunocytochemistry was performed to evaluate the microglial activation state, and ELISA was performed to measure pro-inflammatory TNF-α and IL-6 cytokine concentrations. Incubation of inflammatory astrocyte–microglia co-cultures with amitriptyline, doxepin or IFN-β alone, or co-incubation of IFN-β pre-treated co-cultures with both antidepressants, significantly reduced the extent of inflammation, with the inhibition of microglial activation. TNF-α and IL-6 levels were not affected. Accordingly, the two antidepressants did not interfere with the anti-inflammatory effect of IFN-β on astrocytes and microglia. Furthermore, no cytotoxic effects on glial cells were observed. This is the first in vitro study offering novel perspectives in IFN-β treatment and accompanying depression regarding glia.

A review of current rehabilitation practices and their benefits in patients with multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, debilitating disease characterised by demyelination of the nerves of the central nervous system that results in patients progressively losing the ability to perform daily tasks. As there is no cure for this disease, rehabilitation therapy is an important aspect of care; assisting patients to regain or retain function and improve their physical, mental and social wellbeing. At present there is no current consistent model of care for MS, likely due to the variable symptom presentation. Various forms of rehabilitation therapy are available, and these include physical rehabilitation methods, such as balance and gait therapy, speech and respiration rehabilitation, and occupational therapy. Contrary to previous understanding, exercise-based therapies have shown various benefits for patients with MS, and in addition to improving MS-related physical symptoms, have been shown to reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and can improve cognitive function. Cognition rehabilitation therapy specifically focuses on behavioural tasks and is divided into two main forms: compensatory rehabilitation, which offers cognitive functioning benefits, and restorative rehabilitation, which offers memory benefits. Excitation therapies include cranial stimulation and other stimulation rehabilitation methods such as focal muscle vibration therapy and these non-invasive techniques may improve patient's physical ability. Additionally, more novel rehabilitation methods include robot-assisted gait therapy and telerehabilitation, both of which are expected to play progressively more prominent roles in the future of rehabilitation therapy. The structure of the care team has been found to impact patient outcomes, and both in- and out-patient care settings have been found to be beneficial, dependant on the patient's circumstances, with certain patients better suited to a particular setting. While a single point of care is recommended for patients, a multidisciplinary care team and regular reassessment is recommended to manage changing symptoms and ensure continuity of care. The importance of the critical components of rehabilitation have been identified, and these are of vital importance in achieving beneficial outcomes. These components include the patients' participation in the treatment, goal setting with a multidisciplinary care team, a guiding-light purpose for the patient, which focusses on recognizing their personal potential and obtaining improvements through a tailored plan. The final critical component of rehabilitation is the results measurement, which highlights the need for a quantifiable reduction in impairment and improvement in activity and participation. Overall, a lack of standardisation in outcome measurements makes comparison challenging. This is particularly important when comparing standard methods of care with more novel rehabilitation techniques. However, within the broad area of rehabilitation therapies, it is clear that patients with MS can benefit from rehabilitation practices; physically, mentally and socially.

Multiple Sclerosis: Systemic Challenges to Cost-Effective Care

BACKGROUND

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system characterized by symptoms including reduced mobility, pain, fatigue, and spasticity. MS affects nearly 1 million people in the United States, with significant negative impact on a patient's quality of life, and an average lifetime cost of care in excess of $4 million. The cost-effective management of patients with MS faces several challenges.

OBJECTIVE

To review the challenges to the cost-effective management of patients with MS, and to offer healthcare stakeholders a roadmap to address them.

DISCUSSION

The cost-effective management of patients with MS, which is driven largely by how quickly a patient receives effective medication therapy, is challenged by a paucity of between-office-visit clinical data, variability of provider expertise with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), MRI machine quality, lack of standards for MRI machines and reports, misaligned financial incentives, the limited number of available Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes for brain MRI, the complexity of disease-modifying therapy (DMT) selection, poor patient adherence to treatment plans, poor communication among providers, and a lack of objective measures of disease progression.

CONCLUSION

Insurers, neurologists, researchers, and patient advocacy groups must address the needs of patients with MS holistically. These efforts should include establishing standards for MRI machines and reports, matching patients with MS specialists, aligning financial incentives, including creating a new CPT code for complex brain MRI, streamlining prior authorization processes of DMTs, using technology to gather patient data and improve coordination of care, and developing better measurement tools of disease activity.

Pain, cognition and disability in advanced multiple sclerosis

OBJECTIVES

In patients with multiple sclerosis (MS), a relationship between physical disability and pain has been observed. In addition a relationship between physical disability and cognition in MS has been suggested. However, cognitive functions and pain appear not to be correlated in MS patients. Therefore, we examined whether a possible relationship between pain and cognitive functioning may exist, and if so, if such a relationship is mediated by physical disability.

METHODS

Forty-five MS patients with chronic pain, and in an advanced stage of the disease were included. Physical disabilities were assessed by the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS). Episodic memory was assessed by means of the Eight Words test, and Face and Picture Recognition. Executive functions (EF) were examined by Digit Span Backward for working memory, and the Rule Shift Cards and Category Fluency test for cognitive flexibility. Pain Intensity and Pain Affect were assessed by means of visual analogue scales and one verbal pain scale and mood (depression, anxiety) by the Beck Depression Inventory and the Symptom Check List (SCL-90). The research questions were analyzed by means of regression analyses and the Sobel test for mediation.

RESULTS

A significant relationship was found between Pain Affect and EF, but that relationship was not mediated by physical disabilities (EDSS). In addition, Pain Intensity and EF showed a significant relationship but only in combination with physical disabilities (EDSS). Finally, mood was related to pain affect.

DISCUSSION

The findings suggest that the lower the EF, exclusively or in combination with more physical disabilities, the more the patient may suffer from pain.

IMPLICATIONS

The more one is cognitively and physically impaired, the more one might suffer from pain, and, the less one is able to communicate pain. The latter could put MS patients at risk for underdiagnosing and undertreatment of pain.

Influence of Comorbidities on Healthcare Expenditures and Perceived Physical and Mental Health Status Among Adults with Multiple Sclerosis: A Propensity Score-Matched US National-Level Study

Objective

To evaluate the effect of comorbidities on healthcare expenditures and perceived physical and mental health status among adults with multiple sclerosis (MS) compared to propensity score-matched non-MS controls.

Methods

A retrospective, cross-sectional, matched cohort study was conducted using Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (2005–2015) data. The base study sample consisted of adults (age ≥18 years) who were alive and had positive total healthcare expenditures during the survey calendar year. Adults with MS were propensity-matched (1:1) to non-MS controls based on age, gender, and race/ethnicity using greedy matching algorithm. Healthcare expenditures consisted of total and subtypes of expenditures. Health status consisted of perceived physical and mental health status. Comorbidities were identified using ICD-9-CM and Clinical Classification System codes. Ordinary least squares regression and multinomial logistic regression were used to analyze the healthcare expenditures and health status variables, respectively.

Results

Final study sample consisted of 541 adults in each MS and non-MS control groups after propensity score matching. After adjusting for potential confounders, individuals with MS had greater total and subtypes of expenditures compared to non-MS controls, and several comorbidities (eg, depression, hypertension) were significantly associated with increased healthcare expenditures. Yearly average total expenditures (expressed in 2018 US$) were significantly (p<0.001) higher for adults with MS ($29,396) than propensity score-matched non-MS adults ($7875). Moreover, after adjusting for all individual-level factors, adults with MS experienced 363% (p<0.001) higher total expenditures compared to propensity score-matched non-MS controls. Individuals with MS were more likely to report poorer physical and good mental health status compared to propensity score-matched non-MS controls, and several comorbidities (eg, anxiety, depression) were significant independent predictors of poorer health status. For example, adults with MS were four times more likely (OR: 4.10, 95% CI: 2.42–6.96) to report fair/poor physical health status compared to excellent/very good physical health status compared with non-MS controls. Adults with MS were 42% (OR: 1.42, 95% CI: 1.01–1.99) more likely than propensity score-matched non-MS controls to report good rather than very good or excellent mental health status. However, there was no difference between adults with MS and propensity score-matched non-MS controls in terms of reporting fair or poor than very good or excellent mental health status.

Conclusion

Findings from this study indicate substantial economic and health status burdens among adults with MS at the US national-level that are significantly influenced by comorbidities.

Fear and anxiety in patients with multiple sclerosis during COVID-19 pandemic; report of an Iranian population

Background

There are reports that stress-related disorders are increasing during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) are at higher risk of developing psychiatric disorders, which result in worsening of their disability. There are concerns about the mental health of MS patients during this pandemic.

Objective

We aimed to evaluate the prevalence of anxiety, depression, and levels of fear about Corona in MS patients during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Materials and methods

This was a cross-sectional study on MS patients who were admitted to the MS clinics affiliated with Isfahan University of medical sciences from May to June 2020. Anxiety and depression were evaluated according to the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). The Corona Fear Questionnaire developed by Ahorsu et al. was applied to evaluate the state of fear about COVID-19. Chi-square tests were used to compare depression and anxiety between different groups, Kruskal-Wallis was used for fear scores, Spearman correlation coefficient was also reported for correlations.

Results

410 MS patients with a mean age of 38.6 years (±10.35) were enrolled in the study. Among those patients who answered the HADS questionnaire completely (n=399, n=388, for anxiety and depression subscales respectively) the prevalence of anxiety and depression were 31.2% (n=128) and 39.3% (n=161), respectively. There was no significant relationship between anxiety and depression with any of the following variables: sex, marital status, history of drug abuse, smoking, duration of taking psychiatric medication, being tested for COVID-19, being quarantined. Regarding fear about COVID-19, patients with depression or anxiety showed higher scores on the fear questionnaire (p-value=0.03, p-value=0.008 respectively).

Conclusions

The prevalence of anxiety and depression in MS patients was higher than previously reported. Fear about COVID-19 was correlated with anxiety and depression. Multicenter studies are required to develop specific recommendations for screening mental health problems in MS patients during COVID pandemic.

Chronic mechanical hypersensitivity in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis is regulated by disease severity and neuroinflammation

Chronic pain severely affects quality of life in more than half of people living with multiple sclerosis (MS). A commonly-used model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), typically presents with hindlimb paralysis, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. However, this paralysis may hinder the use of pain behavior tests, with no apparent hypersensitivity observed post-peak disease. We sought to adapt the classic actively-induced EAE model to optimize its pain phenotype. EAE was induced with MOG_35-55/CFA and 100-600 ng pertussis toxin (PTX), and mice were assessed for mechanical, cold and thermal sensitivity over a 28-day period. Spinal cord tissue was collected at 14 and 28 days post-injection to assess demyelination and neuroinflammation. Only mice treated with 100 ng PTX exhibited mechanical hypersensitivity. Hallmarks of disease pathology, including demyelination, immune cell recruitment, cytokine expression, glial activation, and neuronal damage were higher in EAE mice induced with moderate (200 ng) doses of pertussis toxin, compared to those treated with low (100 ng) levels. Immunostaining demonstrated activated astrocytes and myeloid/microglial cells in both EAE groups. These results indicate that a lower severity of EAE disease may allow for the study of pain behaviors while still presenting with disease pathology. By using this modified model, researchers may better study the mechanisms underlying pain.

Treatment Optimization in Multiple Sclerosis: Canadian MS Working Group Recommendations

The Canadian Multiple Sclerosis Working Group has updated its treatment optimization recommendations (TORs) on the optimal use of disease-modifying therapies for patients with all forms of multiple sclerosis (MS). Recommendations provide guidance on initiating effective treatment early in the course of disease, monitoring response to therapy, and modifying or switching therapies to optimize disease control. The current TORs also address the treatment of pediatric MS, progressive MS and the identification and treatment of aggressive forms of the disease. Newer therapies offer improved efficacy, but also have potential safety concerns that must be adequately balanced, notably when treatment sequencing is considered. There are added discussions regarding the management of pregnancy, the future potential of biomarkers and consideration as to when it may be prudent to stop therapy. These TORs are meant to be used and interpreted by all neurologists with a special interest in the management of MS.

Advances in the Understanding and Management of Chronic Pain in Multiple Sclerosis: a Comprehensive Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system that can lead to severe physical, cognitive, and neurological deficits that often manifest in young adults. Central neuropathic pain is a common presenting symptom, often prompting patients to seek treatment with opioids, NSAIDS, antiepileptics, and antidepressants despite minimal effectiveness and alarming side-effect profiles. Additionally, spasticity occurs in more than 80% of MS patients and is an important consideration for further study in treatment.

RECENT FINDINGS

Related to inconsistencies in pain presentation and clinical reporting, current studies continue to investigate clinical patient presentation to define chronic pain characteristics to optimize treatment plans. Although often neuropathic in origin, the complex nature of such pain necessitates a multimodal approach for adequate treatment. While psychiatric comorbidities typically remain unchanged in their severity over time, physical conditions may lead to worsening chronic pain long-term, often due to decreased quality of life. The prevalence of neuropathic pain is ~ 86% in patients with multiple sclerosis and most commonly presents as extremity pain, trigeminal neuralgia, back pain, or headaches. As MS symptoms are frequently unremitting and poorly responsive to conventional medical management, recent attention has been given to novel interventions for management of pain. Among these, medicinal cannabis therapy, targeted physical therapy, and neuromodulation offer promising results. In this review, we provide a comprehensive update of the current perspective of MS pathophysiology, symptomatology, and treatment.

Comorbidities in multiple sclerosis-a plea for interdisciplinary collaboration to improve the quality of life of MS patients

The negative influence of comorbidities on the quality of life of people with multiple sclerosis is evident and the problem is increasingly acknowledged by numerous international studies in long-term care. One therapeutic option would be an add-on therapy with vitamin D (VD), with the aim of achieving a therapeutically effective dose. The individually required VD dose must be tested, since the response to a certain dose is subject to variations between individuals. A possible toxicity with increased 1.25(OH)D3 (active VD metabolite) is largely prevented by increased activity of 24-hydroxylase (CYP24A1). Monitoring of serum VD levels as well as serum calcium and phosphate levels (optional Ca excretion in 24-hour urine, Ca creatinine ratio in urine) provides safety and is necessary because possible mutations on the (catabolic) CYP24A1 gene can lead to a partial or total loss of 24-hydroxylase activity and provoke hypercalcemia/hyperphosphatemia. The main therapeutic objective is to maintain functional and social independence by using drugs with a high safety profile. The prevention and optimal management of comorbidities can influence the quality of life of patients with MS (PwMS) when included in patient care. Adequate measures can reduce the burden of MS only if the risk of comorbidity is reduced through targeted monitoring, early detection and diagnosis. Such a strategy will contribute to influencing the premature mortality of patients with MS. If VD is recognized as a "multipurpose steroid hormone", it could also be used to maintain cognitive function and prevent premature possible dementia, especially as there is evidence that VD deficiency correlates with brain atrophy (hippocampus). At present, MS therapy is still a balancing act between therapeutically efficient action and the management of unexpected side effects, with VD add-on therapy being almost unproblematic and most likely to be accepted by PwMS.

Sensory Function and Chronic Pain in Multiple Sclerosis

Objective

To examine whether hypoesthesia and chronic pain are related in patients with MS.

Methods

Sixty-seven MS patients with pain and 80 persons without MS were included. Sensory functioning was tested by bedside neurological examination. Touch, joint position (dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway), temperature sense, and pain (spinothalamic tract) were tested. Pain intensity was measured by the Colored Analogue Scale (CAS Intensity) and the Faces Pain Scale (FPS); pain affect was also measured by CAS Affect and Number of Words Chosen-Affective (NWC-A). Mood was assessed with the SCL-90 anxiety and depression subscales and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI).

Results

A significant negative relationship was found between pain intensity and the function of the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway, but not with the spinothalamic tract.

Conclusion

In addition to the already known relation between hyperesthesia and pain, hypoesthesia for touch and joint position also seems to be related to chronic pain in MS patients.