Matrix Metalloproteinase 11 is a Potential Biomarker in Bladder Cancer Diagnosis and Prognosis

Selected Cytokines and Metalloproteinases in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a collective term for two diseases: ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD). There are many factors, e.g., genetic, environmental and immunological, that increase the likelihood of these diseases. Indicators of IBDs include extracellular matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). The aim of this review is to present data on the role of selected cytokines and metalloproteinases in IBD. In recent years, more and more transcriptomic studies are emerging. These studies are improving the characterization of the cytokine microenvironment inside inflamed tissue. It is observed that the levels of several cytokines are consistently increased in inflamed tissue in IBD, both in UC and CD. This review shows that MMPs play a major role in the pathology of inflammatory processes, cancer, and IBD. IBD-associated inflammation is associated with increased expression of MMPs and reduced ability of tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) to inhibit their action. In IBD patients in tissues that are inflamed, MMPs are produced in excess and TIMP activity is not sufficient to block MMPs. This review is based on our personal selection of the literature that was retrieved by a selective search in PubMed using the terms "Inflammatory bowel disease" and "pathogenesis of Inflammatory bowel diseases" that includes systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and clinical trials. The involvement of the immune system in the pathophysiology of IBD is reviewed in terms of the role of the cytokines and metalloproteinases involved.

MMP11 is associated with the immune response and immune microenvironment in EGFR-mutant lung adenocarcinoma

Background

High expression of matrix metalloproteinase-11 (MMP11) is associated with various tumors and immune microenvironments. Conversely, poor response to immunotherapy in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-mutant lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) patients is closely related to the characteristics of immune microenvironment.

Methods

The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)-LUAD database and our gathered clinical LUAD samples were used to examine the relationship between MMP11 expression and EGFR mutation. Then the correlation between MMP11 and immune response and the difference of immune cell infiltration in different groups were analyzed. Compared the differences in the immune microenvironment between the MMP11-positive and MMP11-negative expression groups using immunohistochemistry (IHC) and multiplex immunohistochemistry.

Results

The expression of MMP11 in samples with exon 19 deletions, exon 21 L858R or de novo exon 20 T790M mutations was higher than wild type, but there was no difference between the samples with uncommon mutation and the wild-type. The high MMP11 expression group had a higher Tumor Immune Dysfunction and Exclusion (TIDE) score. Pathways associated with enrichment in the extracellular matrix (ECM) were the main biological functions of differential genes between the high and low MMP11 groups. The IHC score of MMP11 in the EGFR-mutant group was higher than in the EGFR-wild group. In TCGA-LUAD, the high MMP11 group had a lower proportion of T cell CD8+ and NK cells activated. In the clinical samples, the infiltration levels of T cell CD8+ and NK cells in the tumor parenchyma of EGFR-mutant LUAD was lower in the MMP11-positive than in the MMP11-negative group. The expression levels of tumor cell PD-L1 were higher in the MMP11-positive expression group than in the MMP11-negative expression group, and the proportion of PD1+CD8+ T cells infiltrated was reduced in the MMP11-positive group compared to the MMP11-negative group.

Conclusions

High expression of MMP11 was associated with EGFR mutations. Patients with EGFR-mutant LUAD with high expression of MMP11 responded poorly to immunotherapy, and the percentage of T cell CD8+ and NK cells in immune cell infiltration was lower in MMP11. Consequently, MMP11 is related to the immunological microenvironment of EGFR-mutant lung adenocarcinoma, which may be a predictor of possible immunotherapeutic response.

Prediction of Prognosis and Recurrence of Bladder Cancer by ECM-Related Genes

Background

Bladder cancer (BLCA) is one of the most common cancers and ranks ninth among all cancers. Extracellular matrix (ECM) genes activate a number of pathways that facilitate tumor development. This study is aimed at providing models to predict BLCA survival and recurrence by ECM genes.

Methods

Expression data from BLCA samples in GSE32894, GSE13507, GSE31684, GSE32548, and TCGA-BLCA cohorts were downloaded and analyzed. The ECM-related genes were obtained by differentially expressed gene analysis, stage-associated gene analysis, and random forest variable selection. The ECM was constructed in GSE32894 by the hub ECM-related genes and validated in GSE13507, GSE31684, GSE32548, and TCGA-BLCA cohorts. The correlations of the ECM score with cells (T cells, fibroblasts, etc.) and the response to immunotherapeutic drugs were investigated. Four machine learning models were selected and used to construct models to predict the recurrence of BLCA. A total of 15 paired BLCA and normal tissue specimens, human immortalized uroepithelial cell lines, and bladder cancer cell lines were selected for the validation of the difference in expression of FSTL1 between normal tissues and BLCA.

Results

Six ECM genes (CTHRC1, MMP11, COL10A1, FSTL1, SULF1, and COL5A3) were recognized to be the hub ECM-related genes. The ECM score of each BLCA patient was calculated using these six selected ECM-related genes. BLCA patients with a high ECM score group had significantly lower overall survival rates than patients in the low ECM score group. We found that the ECM score was positively associated with immune cells and fibroblasts and negatively correlated with tumor purity. When treated with immunotherapy, BLCA patients with a high ECM score presented a high response rate and better prognosis. We also found that the combination of FSTL1, stage, age, and gender achieved an AUC value of 0.76 in predicting bladder cancer recurrence. Based on the RT-qPCR results of FSTL1 gene expression, there was an overall decrease in the mRNA expression of FSTL1 in cancer tissues compared to their adjacent normal tissues. Subsequent in vitro validation demonstrated that the FSTL1 expression was downregulated at the gene and protein level compared to that in SVH cells.

Conclusion

Taken together, our results indicate that ECM-related genes correlate with immune cells, overall survival, and recurrence of BLCA. This study provides a machine learning model for predicting the survival and recurrence of BLCA patients.

Biological Functions and Prognostic Value of Ferroptosis-Related Genes in Bladder Cancer

Background: Every year, nearly 170,000 people die from bladder cancer worldwide. A major problem after transurethral resection of bladder tumor is that 40–80% of the tumors recur. Ferroptosis is a type of regulatory necrosis mediated by iron-catalyzed, excessive oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Increasing the sensitivity of tumor cells to ferroptosis is a potential treatment option for cancer. Establishing a diagnostic and prognostic model based on ferroptosis-related genes may provide guidance for the precise treatment of bladder cancer.

Methods: We downloaded mRNA data in Bladder Cancer from The Cancer Genome Atlas and analyzed differentially expressed genes based on and extract ferroptosis-related genes. We identified relevant pathways and annotate the functions of ferroptosis-related DEGs using Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis and Gene Ontology functions. On the website of Search Tool for Retrieving Interacting Genes database (STRING), we downloaded the protein-protein interactions of DEGs, which were drawn by the Cytoscape software. Then the Cox regression analysis were performed so that the prognostic value of ferroptosis-related genes and survival time are combined to identify survival- and ferroptosis-related genes and establish a prognostic formula. Survival analysis and receiver operating characteristic curvevalidation were then performed. Risk curves and nomograms were generated for both groups to predict survival. Finally, RT-qPCR was applied to analyze gene expression.

Results: Eight ferroptosis-related genes with prognostic value (ISCU, NFE2L2, MAFG, ZEB1, VDAC2, TXNIP, SCD, and JDP2) were identified. With clinical data, we established a prognostic model to provide promising diagnostic and prognostic information of bladder cancer based on the eight ferroptosis-related genes. RT-qPCR revealed the genes that were differentially expressed between normal and cancer tissues.

Conclusion: This study found that the ferroptosis-related genes is associated with bladder cancer, which may serve as new target for the treatment of bladder cancer.

Comprehensive Analysis of the Expression and Prognosis for MMPs in Human Colorectal Cancer

Background

Previous study implicated that genes of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family play an important role in tumor invasion, neoangiogenesis, and metastasis. However, the diverse expression patterns and prognostic values of 24 MMPs in colorectal cancer are yet to be analyzed.

Methods

In this study, by integrating public database and our data, we first investigated the expression levels and protein levels of MMPs in patients with colorectal cancer. Then, by using TCGA and GEO datasets, we evaluated the association of MMPs with clinicopathological parameters and prognosis of colorectal cancer. Finally, by using the cBioPortal online tool, we analyzed the alterations of MMPs and did the network and pathway analyses for MMPs and their nearby genes.

Results

We found that, MMP1, MMP3, MMP7, MMP9–MMP12, and MMP14 were consistently upregulated in public dataset and our samples. Whereas, MMP28 was consistently downregulated in public dataset and our samples. In the clinicopathological analyses, upregulated MMP11, MMP14, MMP16, MMP17, MMP19, and MMP23B were significantly associated with a higher tumor stage. In the survival analyses, upregulated MMP11, MMP14, MMP17, and MMP19 were significantly associated with a shorter progression-free survival (PFS) time and a shorter relapse-free (RFS) time.

Discussion

This study implied that MMP11, MMP14, MMP17, and MMP19 are potential targets of precision therapy for patients with colorectal cancer.

Identification of a Nuclear Mitochondrial-Related Multi-Genes Signature to Predict the Prognosis of Bladder Cancer

INTRODUCTION

Bladder cancer (BC) is one of the most prevalent urinary cancers, and its management is still a problem causing recurrence and progression, elevating mortality.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We aimed at the nuclear mitochondria-related genes (MTRGs), collected from the MITOMAP: A Human Mitochondrial Genome Database. Meanwhile, the expression profiles and clinical information of BC were downloaded from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) as a training group. The univariate, multivariate, and the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) Cox regression analyses were used to construct a nuclear mitochondrial-related multi-genes signature and the prognostic nomogram.

RESULTS

A total of 17 nuclear MTRGs were identified to be correlated with the overall survival (OS) of BC patients, and a nuclear MTRGs signature based on 16 genes expression was further determined by the LASSO Cox regression analysis. Based on a nuclear MTRGs scoring system, BC patients from the TCGA cohort were divided into high- and low- nuclear MTRGs score groups. Patients with a high nuclear MTRGs score exhibited a significantly poorer outcome (median OS: 92.90 vs 20.20 months, p<0.0001). The nuclear MTRGs signature was further verified in three independent datasets, namely, GSE13507, GSE31684, and GSE32548, from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). The BC patients with a high nuclear MTRGs score had significantly worse survival (median OS in GSE13507: 31.52 vs 98.00 months, p<0.05; GSE31684: 32.85 months vs unreached, p<0.05; GSE32548: unreached vs unreached, p<0.05). Furthermore, muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) patients had a significantly higher nuclear MTRGs score (p<0.05) than non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) patients. The integrated signature outperformed each involved MTRG. In addition, a nuclear MTRGs-based nomogram was constructed as a novel prediction prognosis model, whose AUC values for OS at 1, 3, 5 years were 0.76, 0.75, and 0.75, respectively, showing the prognostic nomogram had good and stable predicting ability. Enrichment analyses of the hallmark gene set and KEGG pathway revealed that the E2F targets, G2M checkpoint pathways, and cell cycle had influences on the survival of BC patients. Furthermore, the analysis of tumor microenvironment indicated more CD8+ T cells and higher immune score in patients with high nuclear MTRGs score, which might confer sensitivity to immune checkpoint inhibitors.

CONCLUSIONS

Not only could the signature and prognostic nomogram predict the prognosis of BC, but it also had potential therapeutic guidance.

The paradoxical role of matrix metalloproteinase-11 in cancer

The microenvironment surrounding the tumor affects biological processes, such as cell proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and invasion. Therefore, the ability to change these environments is an important attribute for tumor cells to obtain specific functions necessary for growth and metastasis. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-dependent proteolytic metalloenzymes that facilitate protease-dependent tumor progression by degrading extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, releasing cytokines, growth factors, and other cell surface molecules. As one of the most widely studied MMPs, MMP-11 is an important protease that is expressed in cancer cells, stromal cells, and the adjacent microenvironment. MMP-11 has a dual effect on tumors. On one hand, MMP-11 promotes tumor development by inhibiting apoptosis and promoting the migration and invasion of cancer cells in the early stage. On the other hand, in animal models, MMP-11 has a protective effect on tumor growth and metastasis at an advanced stage. Based on current findings regarding the importance of MMP-11 in altering the tumor microenvironment, there is a need to further understand how stromal cells and the ECM regulate tumor progression, which may result in the re-examination of MMPs as drug targets for cancer and other diseases. In this review, we summarize the dual role of MMP-11 in cancer and its potential clinical significance.