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Wang J, Chen C, Huang J, Xie Z, Chen X, Zheng Z, Li E, Zou H. The possibilities of LOXL4 as a prognostic marker for carcinomas. Amino Acids 2023; 55:1519-1529. [PMID: 37814029 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-023-03343-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-like 4 (LOXL4), a member of lysyl oxidase family, is a copper and lysine tyrosylquinone-dependent amine oxidase that serves the role of catalyzing the cross-linking of elastin and collagen in the extracellular matrix. Numerous studies have shown a significant association between LOXL4 expression levels and tumor proliferation, migration, invasion and patients' prognosis and overall survival in different types of tumors. Here we review their relationship and the molecular pathogenesis behind them, aiming to explore the possibilities of LOXL4 as a prognostic marker for diverse carcinomas and provide some indications for further research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaming Wang
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Chaojian Chen
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiayi Huang
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziman Xie
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoxue Chen
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziqi Zheng
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Enmin Li
- The Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for High Cancer Incidence Coastal Chaoshan Area, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Haiying Zou
- The Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for High Cancer Incidence Coastal Chaoshan Area, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
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James JP, Devaraji V, Sasidharan P, T. S. P. Pharmacophore Modeling, 3D QSAR, Molecular Dynamics Studies and Virtual Screening on Pyrazolopyrimidines as anti-Breast Cancer Agents. Polycycl Aromat Compd 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/10406638.2022.2135545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jainey P. James
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Nitte (Deemed to Be University), NGSM Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (NGSMIPS), Deralakatte, India
| | - Vinod Devaraji
- Computational Drug Design Lab, School of Bio Sciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
| | - Pradija Sasidharan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Nitte (Deemed to Be University), NGSM Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (NGSMIPS), Deralakatte, India
| | - Pavan T. S.
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Nitte (Deemed to Be University), NGSM Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (NGSMIPS), Deralakatte, India
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Myricetin-induced apoptosis in triple-negative breast cancer cells through inhibition of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. MEDICAL ONCOLOGY (NORTHWOOD, LONDON, ENGLAND) 2022; 39:248. [PMID: 36209343 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-022-01856-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 10/10/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is still a severe origin of malignant demise in females, and its prevalence is rising worldwide. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a diversified aggressive breast tumor distinguished by inadequate prognosis, early recurrence, high invasion, and extremely metastasized disease. Chemotherapy is being used to treat it; however, it has low efficacy. On the other hand, with the growing number of corroborations on subtypes of TNBC and molecular biology of tumors, significant advancement in TNBC targeted treatment has been made. Myricetin (MYR), a polyhydroxyflavonol compound widely found in nature, has been shown to possess anticancer effects in various cancers. Though, the mechanisms and impacts of MYR on metastasis of TNBC remain unclear. Early and late apoptotic cell death and cell proliferation inhibition were observed in MYR-treated TNBC cells. MYR modulated cell cycle, pro-angiogenic, and invasion effects via the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Protein kinase B (PKB/also known as AKT) signaling pathways. Moreover, it regulates the expression of MAPK, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, IκB/NF-κB, Hippo, STAT3, GSK-3β, Nrf2/HO-1, TLR, eNOS / NO, ACE, and AChE. Here, we review the anticancer effects of MYR for TNBC and target the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway as a therapeutic target for the fruitful treatment of TNBC to summarize MYR's therapeutic potential.
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Hessel H, Poignée-Heger M, Lohmann S, Hirscher B, Herold A, Assmann G, Budczies J, Sotlar K, Kirchner T. Subtyping Of Triple Negative Breast Carcinoma On The Basis Of RTK Expression. J Cancer 2018; 9:2589-2602. [PMID: 30087699 PMCID: PMC6072816 DOI: 10.7150/jca.23023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: "Triple-negative breast cancers" (TNBC) comprise a heterogeneous group of about 15% of invasive BCs lacking the expression of estrogen and progesterone receptors (ER, PR) and the expression of HER2 (ERBB2) and are therefore no established candidates for targeted treatment options in BC, i.e., endocrine and anti-HER2 therapy. The aim of the present study was to use gene expression profiling and immunohistochemical (IHC) characterization to identify receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) profiles that would allow patient stratification for the purposes of target-oriented personalized tumor therapy in TNBC. Methods: Twenty-nine cases of TNBC selected according to routine diagnostic IHC/cytogenetic criteria were examined by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). RTK mRNA expression profiles were generated for a total of 31 tumor-relevant biomarkers, mainly belonging to the IGF- and EGF-receptor families but also including biomarkers related to downstream signaling. Protein expression of selected biomarkers was investigated by IHC. Results: Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed a dichotomous differentiation pattern amongst TNBCs. A significant difference in gene expression was observed for 16 of the 31 RTK-associated tumor relevant biomarkers between the two newly identified TNBC subgroups. The findings were verified at the posttranslational level by the IHC data. The RTKs HER4, IGF-1R and IGF-2R and the hormone receptors ER and PR below the IHC detection limit play a central role in the differentiation of the two TNBC subgroups. Observed survival was reported as Kaplan-Meier estimates and point towards an improved survival of patients with RTK-high with superior three-year survival rate of 100% compared to RTK-low gene signatures with superior three-year survival rate of 60% (log-rank test, p-value = 0.022). Conclusion: Gene-expression and IHC analysis of the EGF and IGF receptor families and biomarkers associated with downstream signaling point to the existence of two distinct TNBC subtypes. The RTKs HER4, IGF-1R, IGF-2R and the hormone receptors ER and PR appear to be of particular importance here. Based on survival analysis the differentiation of TNBC with RTK-high and RTK-low gene signatures seems to be of prognostic relevance. Additionally, correlation analysis of the relationship between RTKs and ER suggests co-regulatory mechanisms that may have potential significance in new therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harald Hessel
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | - Gerald Assmann
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Germany
- Pathologiepraxis München, Germany
| | - Jan Budczies
- Institute of Pathology, Charité University Hospital, Berlin, Germany
| | - Karl Sotlar
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Germany
- University Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Austria
| | - Thomas Kirchner
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Germany
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Exome Sequencing Identifies Potentially Druggable Mutations in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma. Sci Rep 2017; 7:42980. [PMID: 28256603 PMCID: PMC5335658 DOI: 10.1038/srep42980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we first performed whole exome sequencing of DNA from 10 untreated and clinically annotated fresh frozen nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) biopsies and matched bloods to identify somatically mutated genes that may be amenable to targeted therapeutic strategies. We identified a total of 323 mutations which were either non-synonymous (n = 238) or synonymous (n = 85). Furthermore, our analysis revealed genes in key cancer pathways (DNA repair, cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, immune response, lipid signaling) were mutated, of which those in the lipid-signaling pathway were the most enriched. We next extended our analysis on a prioritized sub-set of 37 mutated genes plus top 5 mutated cancer genes listed in COSMIC using a custom designed HaloPlex target enrichment panel with an additional 88 NPC samples. Our analysis identified 160 additional non-synonymous mutations in 37/42 genes in 66/88 samples. Of these, 99/160 mutations within potentially druggable pathways were further selected for validation. Sanger sequencing revealed that 77/99 variants were true positives, giving an accuracy of 78%. Taken together, our study indicated that ~72% (n = 71/98) of NPC samples harbored mutations in one of the four cancer pathways (EGFR-PI3K-Akt-mTOR, NOTCH, NF-κB, DNA repair) which may be potentially useful as predictive biomarkers of response to matched targeted therapies.
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Magliozzi P, Strianese D, Bonavolontà P, Ferrara M, Ruggiero P, Carandente R, Bonavolontà G, Tranfa F. Orbital metastases in Italy. Int J Ophthalmol 2015; 8:1018-23. [PMID: 26558220 DOI: 10.3980/j.issn.2222-3959.2015.05.30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To describe a series of Italian patients with orbital metastasis focusing on the outcomes in relation to the different primary site of malignancy. METHODS Retrospective chart review of 93 patients with orbital metastasis collected in a tertiary referral centre in a period of 38y and review of literature. RESULTS Out of 93 patients, 52 were females and 41 were males. Median age at diagnosis was 51y (range 1 to 88y). The patients have been divided into four groups on the basis of the year of diagnosis. The frequency of recorded cases had decreased significantly (P<0.05) during the last 9.5y. Primary tumor site was breast in 36 cases (39%), kidney in 10 (11%), lung in 8 (9%), skin in 6 (6%); other sites were less frequent. In 16 case (17%) the primary tumor remained unknown. The most frequent clinical findings were proptosis (73%), limited ocular motility (55%), blepharoptosis (46%) and blurred vision (43%). The diagnosis were established by history, ocular and systemic evaluation, orbital imaging studies and open biopsy or fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB). Treatment included surgical excision, irradiation, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, or observation. Ninety-one percent of patients died of metastasis with an overall mean survival time (OMST) after the orbital diagnosis of 13.5mo. CONCLUSION Breast, kidney and lung are the most frequent primary sites of cancer leading to an orbital metastasis. When the primary site is unknown, gastrointestinal tract should be carefully investigated. In the last decade a decrease in the frequency of orbital metastasis has been observed. Surgery provides a local palliation. Prognosis remains poor with a OMST of 13.5mo ranging from the 3mo in the lung cancer to 24mo in the kidney tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizio Magliozzi
- Department of Neuroscience, Odontostomatological and Reproductive Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Diego Strianese
- Department of Neuroscience, Odontostomatological and Reproductive Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Paola Bonavolontà
- Department of Neuroscience, Odontostomatological and Reproductive Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Mariantonia Ferrara
- Department of Neuroscience, Odontostomatological and Reproductive Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Pasquale Ruggiero
- Department of Neuroscience, Odontostomatological and Reproductive Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Raffaella Carandente
- Department of Neuroscience, Odontostomatological and Reproductive Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Giulio Bonavolontà
- Department of Neuroscience, Odontostomatological and Reproductive Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Fausto Tranfa
- Department of Neuroscience, Odontostomatological and Reproductive Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80131, Italy
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Wuest M, Kuchar M, Sharma SK, Richter S, Hamann I, Wang M, Vos L, Mackey JR, Wuest F, Löser R. Targeting lysyl oxidase for molecular imaging in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 2015; 17:107. [PMID: 26265048 PMCID: PMC4533939 DOI: 10.1186/s13058-015-0609-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Lysyl oxidase (LOX; ExPASy ENZYME entry: EC 1.4.3.13) and members of the LOX-like family, LOXL1-LOXL4, are copper-dependent enzymes that can modify proteins of the extracellular matrix. Expression of LOX is elevated in many human cancers, including breast cancer. LOX expression correlates with the level of tissue hypoxia, and it is known to play a critical role in breast cancer metastasis. The goal of the present study was to target LOX with (1) molecular probe fluorescent labeling to visualize LOX in vitro and (2) a radiolabeled peptide to target LOX in vivo in three different preclinical models of breast cancer. METHODS Gene expression of all five members of the LOX family was analyzed at the transcript level via microarray analysis using tissue biopsy samples from 176 patients with breast cancer. An oligopeptide sequence (GGGDPKGGGGG) was selected as a substrate-based, LOX-targeting structure. The peptide was labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) for confocal microscopy experiments with the murine breast cancer cell line EMT-6. In vivo molecular imaging experiments were performed using a C-terminal amidated peptide, GGGDPKGGGGG, labeled with a short-lived positron emitter, fluorine-18 ((18)F), for positron emission tomography (PET) in three different breast cancer models: EMT6, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231. The PET experiments were carried out in the presence or absence of β-aminopropionitrile (BAPN), an irreversible inhibitor of LOX. RESULTS Immunostaining experiments using a LOX-specific antibody on EMT-6 cells cultured under hypoxic conditions confirmed the elevation of LOX expression in these cells. An FITC-labeled oligopeptide, FITC-Ava-GGGDPKGGGGG-NH2, was found to be localized in different cellular compartments under these conditions. After injection of [(18)F]fluorobenzoate-GGGDPKGGGGG-NH2, radioactivity uptake was visible in all three breast cancer models in vivo. Tumor uptake was reduced by predosing the animals with 2 mg of BAPN 4 h or 24 h before injection of the radiotracer. CONCLUSIONS The present data support further investigation into the development of LOX-binding radiolabeled peptides as molecular probes for molecular imaging of LOX expression in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melinda Wuest
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1Z2, Canada.
| | - Manuela Kuchar
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research, Bautzner Landstrasse 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Sai Kiran Sharma
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1Z2, Canada. .,Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, 11361 87 Avenue, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E1, Canada.
| | - Susan Richter
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1Z2, Canada.
| | - Ingrit Hamann
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1Z2, Canada.
| | - Monica Wang
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1Z2, Canada.
| | - Larissa Vos
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1Z2, Canada.
| | - John R Mackey
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1Z2, Canada.
| | - Frank Wuest
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, 11560 University Avenue, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1Z2, Canada. .,Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, 11361 87 Avenue, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E1, Canada.
| | - Reik Löser
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research, Bautzner Landstrasse 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany.
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Yersal O, Barutca S. Biological subtypes of breast cancer: Prognostic and therapeutic implications. World J Clin Oncol 2014; 5:412-424. [PMID: 25114856 PMCID: PMC4127612 DOI: 10.5306/wjco.v5.i3.412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 588] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2013] [Revised: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 05/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer is a heterogeneous complex of diseases, a spectrum of many subtypes with distinct biological features that lead to differences in response patterns to various treatment modalities and clinical outcomes. Traditional classification systems regarding biological characteristics may have limitations for patient-tailored treatment strategies. Tumors with similar clinical and pathological presentations may have different behaviors. Analyses of breast cancer with new molecular techniques now hold promise for the development of more accurate tests for the prediction of recurrence. Gene signatures have been developed as predictors of response to therapy and protein gene products that have direct roles in driving the biology and clinical behavior of cancer cells are potential targets for the development of novel therapeutics. The present review summarizes current knowledge in breast cancer molecular biology, focusing on novel prognostic and predictive factors.
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Oostra DR, Macrae ER. Role of trastuzumab emtansine in the treatment of HER2-positive breast cancer. BREAST CANCER (DOVE MEDICAL PRESS) 2014; 6:103-13. [PMID: 25114588 PMCID: PMC4112743 DOI: 10.2147/bctt.s67297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Trastuzumab is a monoclonal antibody that is used in the treatment of breast cancer. Trastuzumab targets the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) receptor on breast cancer cells that express this tyrosine kinase receptor. These cancers are referred to as HER2-positive breast cancer. The original studies of trastuzumab showed improved survival in metastatic breast cancer; however, resistance often develops. In the adjuvant setting, women often progress despite therapy that includes trastuzumab. Antibody-drug conjugates are a new class of powerful drugs designed to target high-dose chemotherapy directly to the cancer cells. Trastuzumab emtansine is one of these antibody-drug conjugates and was the first Food and Drug Administration approved drug for a solid tumor. Emtansine is a potent antimicrotubule agent. Trastuzumab is used to target this potent chemotherapy agent directly to the HER2-expressing cancer cells. This review article will summarize the evidence from the preclinical studies, summarize evidence from the clinical trials, discuss current clinical trials, discuss current approval of trastuzumab emtansine, and discuss future directions of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew R Oostra
- Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Transplant. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Erin R Macrae
- Division of Medical Oncology, The James Cancer Hospital, The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, USA
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Roy DM, Walsh LA. Candidate prognostic markers in breast cancer: focus on extracellular proteases and their inhibitors. BREAST CANCER-TARGETS AND THERAPY 2014; 6:81-91. [PMID: 25114586 PMCID: PMC4090043 DOI: 10.2147/bctt.s46020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is the complex network of proteins that surrounds cells in multicellular organisms. Due to its diverse nature and composition, the ECM has a multifaceted role in both normal tissue homeostasis and pathophysiology. It provides structural support, segregates tissues from one another, and regulates intercellular communication. Furthermore, the ECM sequesters a wide range of growth factors and cytokines that may be released upon specific and well-coordinated cues. Regulation of the ECM is performed by the extracellular proteases, which are tasked with cleaving and remodeling this intricate and diverse protein matrix. Accordingly, extracellular proteases are differentially expressed in various tissue types and in many diseases such as cancer. In fact, metastatic dissemination of tumor cells requires degradation of extracellular matrices by several families of proteases, including metalloproteinases and serine proteases, among others. Extracellular proteases are emerging as strong candidate cancer biomarkers for aiding and predicting patient outcome. Not surprisingly, inhibition of these protumorigenic enzymes in animal models of metastasis has shown impressive therapeutic effects. As such, many of these proteolytic inhibitors are currently in various phases of clinical investigation. In addition to direct approaches, aberrant expression of extracellular proteases in disease states may also facilitate the selective delivery of other therapeutic or imaging agents. Herein, we outline extracellular proteases that are either bona fide or probable prognostic markers in breast cancer. Furthermore, using existing patient data and multiple robust statistical analyses, we highlight several extracellular proteases and associated inhibitors (eg, uPA, ADAMs, MMPs, TIMPs, RECK) that hold the greatest potential as clinical biomarkers. With the recent advances in high-throughput technology and targeted therapies, the incorporation of extracellular protease status in breast cancer patient management may have a profound effect on improving outcomes in this deadly disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Roy
- Weill Cornell/Rockefeller/Sloan-Kettering Tri-Institutional MD-PhD Program, New York, NY, USA
| | - Logan A Walsh
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
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