Treatment of anxiety during pregnancy: effects of psychotropic drug treatment on the developing fetus

Depression, Anxiety, and Pharmacotherapy Around the Time of Pregnancy in Hawaii

BACKGROUND

Depression and anxiety are common conditions among pregnant and postpartum women, but population-based information is lacking on treatments and help-seeking behaviors.

PURPOSE

This study described the prevalence of depression, anxiety, pharmaceutical treatment, and help-seeking behaviors among a multiethnic population of women with recent live births in Hawaii.

METHOD

Hawaii Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System data from 4735 respondents were weighted to be representative of all pregnancies resulting in live births in Hawaii in 2009-2011 and were used to estimate the prevalence of several indicators related to anxiety and depression before, during, and after pregnancy among women with recent live births.

RESULTS

Of Hawaii women with live births in 2009-2011, 7.3 % reported visiting a healthcare worker to be checked or treated for depression or anxiety in the year before their most recent pregnancy, 4.9 % reported having depression in the 3 months before pregnancy, 5.9 % reported having anxiety in the same period, 9.1 % screened positive for postpartum depression, and 6.9 % reported asking a doctor, nurse, or other healthcare worker for help for anxiety postpartum. The prevalence of antianxiety and antidepressant prescription drug use was 2.3 % in the month before pregnancy and 1.4 % during pregnancy. Hawaii had lower prevalence of pre-pregnancy depression, anxiety, and depression/anxiety health visits than other US states. Pre-pregnancy depression and anxiety and postpartum anxiety help-seeking behaviors differed significantly by race/ethnicity.

CONCLUSION

Depression and anxiety are common among pregnant and postpartum women in Hawaii. More research could better inform heath care professionals and patients of the treatment options available and their potential risks and benefits.

The Teratogenic Effects of Flurazepam Intake during Organogenesis of the Rat Fetus

ABSTRACT Flurazepam is a long acting drug with sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, relaxant, and anti-epileptic properties. The drug is a benzodiazepine and is commonly used by adults, including pregnant women, intentionally or sometimes unintentionally during their pregnancy. It is increasingly used these days, and therefore, it seems a special problem to the clinician treating anxiety disorders in women. It should be noticed that flurazepam exposure during pregnancy may have teratogenic effects on the fetus. Until now, many studies have been conducted on drug side-effects in poisonings, behavioral disorder, and anxiety reactions, but there is no accurate report about the teratogenic effect of flurazepam. In this study, teratogenicity flurazepam intake during pregnancy and its effects on fetus development was investigated. About 30 virgin rats of known age and weight were used. After being pregnant, they were divided into three groups: Negative and positive control group, case groups exposed for 1 to 6 mg/kg/day. The fetuses were first studied macroscopically regarding anomalies, and then histological and histochemically to inspect the defects of tissue organogenesis. Our results show that there was significant difference in the weight and length of the cases compared to the control group. The statistical results indicate that flurazepam intake during the second half of pregnancy can lead to irreversible anomalies. It seems that benzodiazepine therapy among pregnant woman would be better to avoid during the first trimester and multidrug regimens.

Pharmacologic management of the opioid neonatal abstinence syndrome

Opioid use in pregnant women has increased over the last decade. Following birth, infants with in utero exposure demonstrate signs and symptoms of withdrawal known as the neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). Infants express a spectrum of disease, with most requiring the administration of pharmacologic therapy to ensure proper growth and development. Treatment often involves prolonged hospitalization. There is a general lack of high-quality clinical trial data to guide optimal therapy, and significant heterogeneity in treatment approaches. Emerging trends in the treatment of infants with NAS include the use of sublingual buprenorphine, transition to outpatient therapy, and pharmacogenetic risk stratification.

Dispensing patterns and pregnancy outcomes for women dispensed selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in pregnancy

BACKGROUND

The safety of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) during pregnancy remains uncertain. The purpose of this study was to investigate dispensing patterns and pregnancy outcomes for women dispensed an SSRI in pregnancy.

METHODS

Using data linkage of population-based health datasets from Western Australia and a national pharmaceutical claims dataset, our study included 123,405 pregnancies from 2002 to 2005. There were 3764 children born to 3703 women who were dispensed an SSRI during their pregnancy.

RESULTS

A total of 42.3% of the women were dispensed an SSRI in each trimester, and 97.6% of the women used the same SSRI throughout the first trimester without switching. The women who were dispensed an SSRI were more likely to give birth prematurely (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.2-1.7), to have smoked during the pregnancy (OR, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.8-2.1), and parity>1 (OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.5-1.8). The singletons were found to have a lower birth weight than expected when other factors were taken into account (OR, 1.2; 95% CI, 1.1-1.3). There was an increased risk of major cardiovascular defects (OR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.1-2.3). The children of women dispensed citalopram during the first trimester had an increased risk of vesicoureteric reflux (OR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.3-7.6). Children born to women dispensed sertraline had a higher mean birth weight than those born to women dispensed citalopram, paroxetine, or fluoxetine. This pattern was also seen in birth length.

CONCLUSIONS

Most women were dispensed the same SSRI throughout their pregnancy. We have confirmed previous findings with an increased risk of cardiovascular defects and preterm birth. New findings requiring confirmation include an increased risk of vesicoureteric reflux with the use of citalopram.

Sublingual buprenorphine for treatment of neonatal abstinence syndrome: a randomized trial

OBJECTIVE

In utero exposure to drugs of abuse can lead to neonatal abstinence syndrome, a condition that is associated with prolonged hospitalization. Buprenorphine is a partial mu-opioid agonist used for treatment of adult detoxification and maintenance but has never been administered to neonates with opioid abstinence syndrome. The primary objective of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility and, to the extent possible in this size of study, the safety of sublingual buprenorphine in the treatment of neonatal abstinence syndrome. Secondary goals were to evaluate efficacy relative to standard therapy and to characterize buprenorphine pharmacokinetics when sublingually administered.

METHODS

We conducted a randomized, open-label, active-control study of sublingual buprenorphine for the treatment of opiate withdrawal. Thirteen term infants were allocated to receive sublingual buprenorphine 13.2 to 39.0 mug/kg per day administered in 3 divided doses and 13 to receive standard-of-care oral neonatal opium solution. Dose decisions were made by using a modified Finnegan scoring system.

RESULTS

Sublingual buprenorphine was largely effective in controlling neonatal abstinence syndrome. Greater than 98% of plasma concentrations ranged from undetectable to approximately 0.60 ng/mL, which is less than needed to control abstinence symptoms in adults. The ratio of buprenorphine to norbuprenorphine was larger than that seen in adults, suggesting a relative impairment of N-dealkylation. Three infants who received buprenorphine and 1 infant who received standard of care reached protocol-specified maximum doses and required adjuvant therapy with phenobarbital. The mean length of treatment for those in the neonatal-opium-solution group was 32 compared with 22 days for the buprenorphine group. The mean length of stay for the neonatal-opium-solution group was 38 days compared with 27 days for those in the buprenorphine group. Treatment with buprenorphine was well tolerated.

CONCLUSIONS

Buprenorphine administered via the sublingual route is feasible and apparently safe and may represent a novel treatment for neonatal abstinence syndrome.

Depression and anxiety during pregnancy: a risk factor for obstetric, fetal and neonatal outcome? A critical review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

Research from the past two decades has suggested a link between prenatal maternal psychological distress and adverse obstetric, fetal and neonatal outcome. Comparability of study results, however, is complicated by a diversity of definitions and measurements of prenatal maternal stress and different time points of assessment. Our aim was to critically review studies assessing maternal anxiety and depression during pregnancy and their impact on obstetric, fetal and neonatal outcome.

METHODS

We carried out a computerized literature search of PubMed, PsycLIT and EMBASE (1990-2005) and a manual search of bibliographies of pertinent articles. In total 35 studies were identified that fulfilled the inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

Elevated levels of depression and anxiety were found to be associated with obstetric outcome (obstetric complications, pregnancy symptoms, preterm labor and pain relief under labor), and had implications for fetal and neonatal well-being and behavior. However, prediction of the impact of mood and anxiety disorders during pregnancy is very limited due to methodological problems. Most notably, the majority of the studies included pregnant women with elevated symptoms of depressed mood and anxiety and did diagnose mood and anxiety disorders. Also, potentially confounding and protecting factors as well as biological mechanisms with a possible role in adverse outcome in pregnant women with depression and anxiety disorders have received little attention.

CONCLUSIONS

Enhanced levels of depression and anxiety symptoms during pregnancy contribute independently of other biomedical risk factors to adverse obstetric, fetal and neonatal outcome. However, conclusions for women with mood or anxiety disorders are limited.

Treating mood disorders during pregnancy: safety considerations

Mood disorders in pregnancy may have a negative effect on self care and pregnancy outcome that affects the mother directly and the child indirectly. Thus, some women may require pharmacological treatment. Pharmacotherapy of mood disorders during pregnancy implies specific considerations. This paper presents an updated review of available studies on the treatment of mood disorders and present knowledge on teratogenicity, neonatal effects and long-term neurobehavioural effects for the different psychotropic drugs, including treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), other antidepressants, benzodiazepines, lithium, carbamazepine/valproic acid, lamotrigine and novel antipsychotics. However, the existing knowledge on the use of antidepressants and mood stabilising agents during pregnancy is hampered by a lack of results from randomised controlled trials.SSRIs and TCAs have not been associated with an increased risk of major malformations, but poor neonatal adaptation has been described. Benzodiazepines used in the first trimester have been associated with orofacial clefts. Mood stabilisers such as lithium, carbamazepine and valproic acid (sodium valproate) are associated with an increased risk of fetal malformations. Both benzodiazepines and lithium may cause adaptation problems in the newborn. In utero exposure to novel antipsychotics has not been associated with congenital malformations; however, the data are still limited. The knowledge about long-term neurobehavioural effects in the offspring is still limited for all agents and requires further investigation. Possible adverse effects of fetal exposure must be balanced against the adverse effects of an untreated maternal mood disorder.

Medications for panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder during pregnancy

OBJECTIVE

Approximately 30% of women experience some type of anxiety disorder during their lifetime. In addition, some evidence exists that anxiety disorders can affect pregnancy outcomes. This article reviews the literature on the course of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and panic disorder during pregnancy and the postpartum period and presents guidelines for management.

DATA SOURCES AND STUDY SELECTION

An English language electronic search of relevant studies using PubMed (January 1, 1985-January 2004) was performed using the search terms anxiety and pregnancy, maternal mental illness, panic and pregnancy, psychotropic medications in pregnancy, and treatment options in pregnancy. Review articles and primary pharmacologic treatment articles were selected for discussion.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

Despite the extensive use of psychotropic drugs such as antidepressants during pregnancy, there is a scarcity of information regarding the effect of such exposure on the developing fetus. Review articles and primary pharmacologic treatment trials were analyzed and incorporated into the review based on adequate methodology, completeness of data, and information on pregnancy outcome.

CONCLUSION

It is important that physicians understand the course of these disorders during pregnancy and available treatments so they appropriately counsel women who are or intend to become pregnant. The goal of treatment during pregnancy and lactation is sufficient treatment for syndrome remission. To minimize the potential for neonatal withdrawal and maternal toxicity after delivery, vigilant monitoring of side effects is indicated. Also, if possible, nonpharmacologic treatment, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, should be first-line treatment in pregnant women with GAD or panic disorder.

Effects of drugs on the fetus

Most drugs are not labelled for use in pregnancy. Consequently, large numbers of women expose their fetus to potential risks, either because they do not know that they are pregnant or because they require treatment for gestational pathologies. The present review focuses on drug classes for which the risk:benefit ratio during pregnancy has been discussed recently based on human data. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have gained wide acceptance in the treatment of depression and data on their risk for neonatal adaptation after late exposure are reviewed. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptors antagonists interact with the renin-angiotensin system, although with different mechanisms, and might cause severe fetal tubular dysgenesis. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory and antiviral drugs and recreational drugs are also presented.

The effect of controlled drugs on the unborn child and fetus

Illicit substance abuse is more prevalent than thought in women of a child bearing age and its incidence is increasing. Although maternal factors, such as poor socioeconomic status, diet, smoking, alcohol and infection, have detrimental effects on the fetuses of drug-abusing mothers, harm is increased due to the pharmacological activity of the drugs themselves. This article reviews the pharmacophysiological interactions between mother and fetus, describes the general effects of substance abuse during each trimester and details the deleterious effects on the fetus of the more commonly abused controlled drugs.

Structural Effects and Neurofunctional Sequelae of Developmental Exposure to Psychotherapeutic Drugs: Experimental and Clinical Aspects

The advent of psychotherapeutic drugs has enabled management of mental illness and other neurological problems such as epilepsy in the general population, without requiring hospitalization. The success of these drugs in controlling symptoms has led to their widespread use in the vulnerable population of pregnant women as well, where the potential embryotoxicity of the drugs has to be weighed against the potential problems of the maternal neurological state. This review focuses on the developmental toxicity and neurotoxicity of five broad categories of widely available psychotherapeutic drugs: the neuroleptics, the antiepileptics, the antidepressants, the anxiolytics and mood stabilizers, and a newly emerging class of nonprescription drugs, the herbal remedies. A brief review of nervous system development during gestation and following parturition in mammals is provided, with a description of the development of neurochemical pathways that may be involved in the action of the psychotherapeutic agents. A thorough discussion of animal research and human clinical studies is used to determine the risk associated with the use of each drug category. The potential risks to the fetus, as demonstrated in well described neurotoxicity studies in animals, are contrasted with the often negative findings in the still limited human studies. The potential risk fo the human fetus in the continued use of these chemicals without more adequate research is also addressed. The direction of future research using psychotherapeutic drugs should more closely parallel the methodology developed in the animal laboratories, especially since these models have already been used extremely successfully in specific instances in the investigation of neurotoxic agents.

Depression and anxiety disorders

Depressive and anxiety disorders are common problems facing obstetrician-gynecologists. Although psychiatric disorders are equally common in men and women, women are at least twice as likely to present with depressive disorders and most anxiety disorders. The depressive disorders include major depression, dysthymia, seasonal affective disorder, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. The anxiety disorders are panic disorder (with and without agoraphobia), generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, and PTSD. One must diagnose and manage depressive and anxiety disorders during pregnancy, the purpureum, and while breastfeeding. General treatment principles include assessing suicide risk, psychotherapy, pharmacologic treatment, and an appropriate medical work-up for depressive and anxiety disorders. The SSRIs are the first-line treatment for most depressive and anxiety disorders because of data supporting their efficacy, the minimal need for dosage titration, the overall favorable side-effect profile, and the length of available clinical experience. Newer antidepressants, such as venlafaxine, bupropion, nefazodone, and mirtazapine, are options for patients unresponsive to, or intolerant of, the SSRIs. Treatment considerations include acute, maintenance, and continuation therapy, dosage regimens, adverse effects, and drug interactions. Specific guidelines are available for referring patients to a mental health specialist.