Interaction Between Alcohol and Exercise

Regular exercise attenuates alcoholic myopathy in zebrafish by modulating mitochondrial homeostasis

Alcoholic myopathy is caused by chronic consumption of alcohol (ethanol) and is characterized by weakness and atrophy of skeletal muscle. Regular exercise is one of the important ways to prevent or alleviate skeletal muscle myopathy. However, the beneficial effects and the exact mechanisms underlying regular exercise on alcohol myopathy remain unclear. In this study, a model of alcoholic myopathy was established using zebrafish soaked in 0.5% ethanol. Additionally, these zebrafish were intervened to swim for 8 weeks at an exercise intensity of 30% of the absolute critical swimming speed (Ucrit), aiming to explore the beneficial effects and underlying mechanisms of regular exercise on alcoholic myopathy. This study found that regular exercise inhibited protein degradation, improved locomotion ability, and increased muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) in ethanol-treated zebrafish. In addition, regular exercise increases the functional activity of mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC) complexes and upregulates the expression levels of MRC complexes. Regular exercise can also improve oxidative stress and mitochondrial dynamics in zebrafish skeletal muscle induced by ethanol. Additionally, regular exercise can activate mitochondrial biogenesis and inhibit mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt). Together, our results suggest regular exercise is an effective intervention strategy to improve mitochondrial homeostasis to attenuate alcoholic myopathy.

The blood acid base and gastrointestinal response to three different forms of sodium citrate encapsulation

Enterically coated (ENT) or delayed-release (DEL) capsules may lessen gastrointestinal symptoms (GIS) following acute sodium citrate (SC) ingestion, although the effects on blood acid-base balance are undetermined. Fourteen active males ingested 0.4 g.kg-1 body mass (BM) SC, within gelatine (GEL), DEL and ENT capsules or 0.07 g.kg-1 BM sodium chloride control (CON). Blood acid-base balance and GIS were measured for 4 h. Ingestion form had no significant effect on total GIS experienced (GEL: 2 ± 7; DEL: 1 ± 8; ENT: 1 ± 4 AU). Most (7/14) participants experienced zero symptoms throughout. Peak GIS typically emerged ≤100 min post-ingestion, with a similar time to reach peak GIS between ingestion form (GEL: 36 ± 70; DEL: 13 ± 28; ENT: 15 ± 33 AU). Blood [HCO3-] was significantly higher with ENT versus GEL (ENT: 29.0 ± 0.8; GEL: 28.5 ± 1.1 mmol.L-1, P = 0.037). Acute ingestion of a reduced SC dose elicited minimal GIS, producing significant changes in blood [HCO3-] from rest, irrespective of ingestion form (GEL: 6.0 ± 0.9; DEL: 5.1 ± 1.0; ENT: 6.2 ± 0.8 mmol.L-1). The necessity of individualized ingestion strategies is also challenged, with sustained increases in blood [HCO3-] of ≥4 mmol.L-1 for up to 153 min highlighted. If commencing exercise at peak alkalosis augments subsequent performance above starting at a standardized time point where HCO3- is still elevated remains unclear.

Associations between physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and alcohol consumption among UK adults: Findings from the Health Behaviours during the COVID-19 pandemic (HEBECO) study

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 pandemic and attendant lockdowns have had a substantial negative effect on alcohol consumption and physical activity globally. Pre-pandemic evidence in the adult population suggests that higher levels of physical activity were associated with higher levels of drinking, but it is unclear how the pandemic may have affected this. Therefore, this study aims to assess the association between alcohol consumption and physical activity in a UK cohort established during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

Analyses utilized data from the Health Behaviours during the COVID-19 pandemic (HEBECO) study involving 2,057 UK adults (≥18 years). Participants completed self-report measures of alcohol consumption [frequency, quantity, frequency of heavy episodic drinking (HED) and AUDIT-C score] and physical activity [moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), frequency of muscle strengthening activity (MSA) and sedentary behaviour] between November 2020 and January 2021. Ordinal logistic regression models were conducted, adjusting for sociodemographic factors.

RESULTS

Fifteen percent of the sample reported abstinence from drinking. Overall, 23.4% of participants drank ≥4 times/week, 13.9% drank more than 6 units/single drinking occasion (HED), 7.5% reported HED daily/almost daily and 4.2% scored ≥11 on AUDIT-C. MSA 3 days/week compared with no MSA was significantly associated with higher odds of alcohol frequency [OR (95 CI%) = 1.41 (1.04-1.91)], quantity [OR (95 CI%) = 1.38 (1.02-1.87)], HED [OR (95 CI%) = 1.42 (1.05-1.94)] and possible dependence [OR (95 CI%) = 1.47 (1.05-2.06)]. The association of MVPA and sedentary behaviour with drinking measures was not significant (p>0.05).

CONCLUSION

In contrast with previous research, MSA rather than aerobic physical activity was associated with increased alcohol consumption during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is conceivable that during lockdown while drinking was used as a coping strategy, limited opportunities for aerobic exercise made MSA a more convenient form of physical activity. To guide public health interventions, more research is required to examine the temporal relationship between different forms of physical activity and alcohol consumption.

Financial Literacy and Exercise Behavior: Evidence from Japan

Lack of exercise, which increases the risk of many serious physical and mental illness, has been a common health issue in Japan. Recent studies confirm that financial literacy discourages irrational behavior like gambling and smoking. We therefore investigate how financial literacy, as a rational decision-making instrument, relates to peoples’ exercise behavior in Japan. We hypothesize that financial literacy encourages people to exercise regularly. Using Osaka University’s Preference Parameters Study (PPS) for 2010, we categorized respondents into two groups: those who exercise regularly or at least once a week and those who do not. Our probit estimation results show that financial literacy is positively related with exercise behavior, meaning that financially literate people are more likely to exercise regularly. As the COVID-19 health pandemic seems to exacerbate peoples’ physical inactivity, the results of our study show an alternative approach to encourage exercise. We therefore recommend that governments implement a financial literacy improvement policy to alleviate the lack of exercise.

Alcohol and Athletics: A Study of Canadian Student-Athlete Risk

American student-athletes (SAs) are at heightened risk for hazardous alcohol consumption compared with their nonathlete peers. However, little is known about this risk or the influence of psychosocial predictors on drinking behavior among Canadian SAs. This study compared rates of alcohol use across Canadian SAs and nonathletes and investigated whether the use of athlete-specific psychosocial predictors can improve the prediction of alcohol use outcomes in SAs. Participants (179 varsity athletes and 366 nonathletes) completed anonymous self-report questionnaires. Results suggest that Canadian athletes are at a heightened risk for experiencing alcohol-related problems compared with nonathletes, with general psychosocial predictors explaining the majority of variance in SA alcohol use. However, and quite notably, athlete-specific positive reinforcement motives predicted SA binge drinking. This research provides some of the first evidence of drinking-related problems among Canadian SAs and supports the potential use of preventative efforts to help SAs develop safe strategies for alcohol use.

Relevance of Athlete-Specific Psychosocial Factors in High School Student-Athlete Alcohol Consumption

Background: Research suggests that adolescent student-athletes are at heightened risk for alcohol consumption. The identification of unique, modifiable risk factors for alcohol use in this population is needed. Purpose/Objectives: Building on previous work highlighting the importance of each of athlete-specific drinking motives and alcohol expectancies, this study investigated whether athlete-specific psychosocial predictors optimize our ability to predict adolescent athlete alcohol consumption after accounting for general psychosocial predictors. Methods: Participants were 352 current high school student-athletes who completed a self-report questionnaire about their alcohol use attitudes, behaviors, and cognitions. Results: Hierarchical regression revealed that among the total sample, gender, class year, liquid courage/sociability, sexuality, and negative alcohol expectancies, and negative athletic-functioning alcohol expectancies predicted alcohol consumption. Among lifetime drinkers, gender, class year, enhancement motives, conformity motives (negative), negative athlete-functioning alcohol expectancies, and sport-related coping motives predicted alcohol consumption. Conclusions/Importance: Negative athletic-functioning alcohol expectancies and sport-related coping motives emerged as important, athlete-specific predictors of adolescent athlete alcohol use. These factors provide important opportunities for targeted prevention efforts.

Ingestion of a moderate dose of alcohol enhances physical exercise-induced changes in blood lactate concentration

The consumption of alcoholic beverages influences carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, although it is not yet clear whether metabolism during physical exercise at different intensities is also affected. This was the objective of the present study. Eight young and healthy volunteers performed a treadmill test to identify the running speed corresponding to a lactate concentration of 4 mM (S4mM). At least 48 h later, they were subjected to two experimental trials (non-alcohol or alcohol) in which they performed two 1-km running sessions at the following intensities: 1) S4mM; 2) 15% above S4mM. In both trials, blood lactate, triglycerides, and glucose concentrations were measured before and after exercise. The acute alcohol intake increased triglycerides, but not lactate concentration under resting conditions. Interestingly, alcohol intake enhanced the exercise-induced increase in lactate concentration at the two intensities: S4mM (non-alcohol: 4.2±0.3 mM vs alcohol: 4.8±0.9 mM; P=0.003) and 15% above S4mM trial (P=0.004). When volunteers ingested alcohol, triglycerides concentration remained increased after treadmill running (e.g., at S4mM - at rest; non-alcohol: 0.2±0.5 mM vs alcohol: 1.3±1.3 mM; P=0.048). In contrast, glucose concentration was not modified by either alcohol intake, exercise, or their combination. We concluded that an acute alcohol intake changed lactate and lipid metabolism without affecting blood glucose concentration. In addition, the increase in lactate concentration caused by alcohol was specifically observed when individuals exercised, whereas augmented triglycerides concentration was already observed before exercise and was sustained thereafter.

Optimism predicts sustained vigorous physical activity in postmenopausal women

Optimism and cynical hostility are associated with health behaviors and health outcomes, including morbidity and mortality. This analysis assesses their association with longitudinal vigorous physical activity (PA) in postmenopausal women of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI). Subjects include 73,485 women nationwide without history of cancer or cardiovascular disease (CVD), and no missing baseline optimism, cynical hostility, or PA data. The Life Orientation Test-Revised Scale measured optimism. A Cook Medley questionnaire subscale measured cynical hostility. Scale scores were divided into quartiles. Vigorous PA three times or more per week was assessed via self-report at study baseline (1994–1998) and through follow-up year 6. Descriptive analysis mapped lifetime trajectories of vigorous PA (recalled at ages 18, 25, 50; prospectively assessed at baseline, and 3 and 6 years later). Hierarchical generalized linear mixed models examined the prospective association between optimism, cynical hostility, and vigorous PA over 6 years. Models adjusted for baseline sociodemographic variables, psychosocial characteristics, and health conditions and behaviors. Vigorous PA rates were highest for most optimistic women, but fell for all women by approximately 60% between age 50 and study baseline. In adjusted models from baseline through year 6, most vs. least optimistic women were 15% more likely to exercise vigorously (p < 0.001). Cynical hostility was not associated with lower odds of longitudinal vigorous PA after adjustment. Results did not differ by race/ethnicity or socioeconomic status. Higher optimism is associated with maintaining vigorous PA over time in post-menopausal women, and may protect women's health over the lifespan.

Role of exercise in the treatment of alcohol use disorders

Excessive alcohol use can cause harmful effects on the human body, which are associated with serious health problems, and it can also lead to the development of alcohol use disorders (AUDs). There is certain evidence that physical exercise positively affects excessive alcohol use and the associated problems by leading to reduced alcohol intake. A literature search was conducted using the databases PubMed, Medline and Web of Science. The search terms used as keywords were: Addiction, abuse, alcohol use disorders, exercise training, β-endorphin, opioids, brain, ethanol and alcohol. The current study presents the studies that reported on the use of exercise in the treatment of AUDs between 1970 and 2015. The potential psychological and physiological mechanisms that contribute to the action of exercise were also reviewed, highlighting the role of β-endorphin and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in AUDs and the possible association among physical activity, the endogenous opioid system and the desire for alcohol. Only 11 studies were identified that refer to the effect of exercise on alcohol consumption and/or the associated outcomes. Six of those studies concluded that exercise may have a positive impact towards alcohol consumption, abstinence rates or the urge to drink. One of those studies also indicated that a bout of exercise affects the endogenous opioids, which may be associated with the urge to drink. Another 3 studies indicated that responses to acute exercise in individuals with AUDs are different compared to those in healthy ones. Generally, despite limited research data and often contradictory results, there is certain early promising evidence for the role of exercise as an adjunctive tool in the treatment of AUDs. Physiological and biochemical parameters that would confirm that exercise is safe for individuals with AUDs should be examined in future studies.

Ethanol up-regulates phenol sulfotransferase (SULT1A1) and hydroxysteroid sulfotransferase (SULT2A1) in rat liver and intestine

Ethanol-consumption impairs physiological-efficiency/endurance, expedites senescence. Impaired-regulations of steroids/biomolecules link these processes. Steroids are catabolized by cytosolic-sulfotransferases (SULTs). Ethanol-induction of eukaryotic-SULTs-expression is scanty. Plant (Brassica-napus) steroid-sulfotransferase; BNST3/BNST4 (gene/BNST) is highly ethanol-inducible (protein/mRNA). Resembling mammalian-SULTs catalytic-mechanism BNSTs show broad substrate-specificities (mammalian-steroids; estradiol/dehydroepiandrosterone/pregnanolone). Recently, ethanol-regulation of SULTs-expression is verified in rat liver/intestine/cultured human-hepatocarcinoma (Hep-G2) cells at enzyme-activity/protein-expression (Western-blot) level. Here, two week's ethanol ingestion by male rat significantly increased SULT2A1 in their liver/intestine (p < 0.05-p < 0.001) and phenol-sulfotransferase (SULT1A1) in intestine (p < 0.001) at enzyme-activity/protein levels. In human cells, ethanol significantly (2-fold) increased hSULT1A1/hSULT1E (2-3 fold) protein expressions paralleling their enzymatic-activities (p < 0.05-p < 0.01). The earlier finding of alcohol-association to the physiological impairment may be corroborated by our present findings. Inductions of SULT-expressions by ethanol have significant physiological/pharmacological consequences.

Daily physical activity and alcohol use across the adult lifespan

OBJECTIVE

In contrast to proposals that physical activity (PA) can be a substitute for alcohol use, people who engage in greater overall PA generally consume more alcohol on average than less-active peers. Acknowledging that both PA and alcohol use vary considerably from day-to-day, this study evaluated whether established associations reflect daily behavioral coupling within-person, are an artifact of procedures that aggregate behavior over time, or both.

METHODS

A life span sample of 150 adults (aged 19-89 years) completed three 21-day measurement bursts of a daily diary study. At the end of each day, they reported on their PA and alcohol consumption. Data were analyzed in a negative binomial multilevel regression.

RESULTS

As expected, both behaviors exhibited limited between-person variation. After controlling for age, gender, and seasonal and social calendar influences, daily deviations in PA were significantly associated with daily total alcohol use. Once the within-person process linking PA and alcohol use was controlled, usual PA and total alcohol use were not associated.

CONCLUSIONS

The established between-person association linking PA and alcohol use reflects the aggregation of a daily process that unfolds within-people over time. Further work is needed to identify mediators of this daily association and to evaluate causality, as well as to investigate these relations in high-risk samples.

Pre-endurance training prevents acute alcoholic liver injury in rats through the regulation of damaged mitochondria accumulation and mitophagy balance

AIM

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of pre-endurance training on the prevention of alcohol-induced acute hepatic injury and on hepatic mitophagy.

METHODS

Forty-eight male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups: (1) control group, (2) 12-week exercise training group, (3) 5-day alcohol intake group, and (4) 12-week exercise training plus 5-day alcohol intake group. The rats were examined to determine the following: BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa protein-interacting protein 3 (BNIP3), hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1), alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3II), Beclin1 mRNA and protein expressions, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, mitochondrial thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) level, aconitase and ATP synthase activities, mitochondrial inner membrane potential, NADH/NAD(+) ratio, triglyceride (TG), the number of mtDNA and mitochondrial respiration functions in liver tissue, and serum ALT and AST.

RESULTS

Pre-endurance training attenuated acute alcohol treatment-induced increase in mitochondrial TBARS, ROS production, NADH/NAD(+) ratio, state 4 respiration rate, TG, serum ALT and AST, as well as BNIP3, HIF-1α, LC3II, and Beclin 1 mRNA and protein levels, however, CYP2E1 and ADH mRNA and protein levels unchanged. Meanwhile, it attenuated the acute alcohol intake-induced decrease in aconitase activity, inner mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψ), ATP synthase activity, state 3 respiration rate, respiratory control ratio, and the number of mtDNA.

CONCLUSION

Pre-endurance training can decrease acute alcohol intake-induced damaged mitochondria accumulation and reduced acute alcohol intake-induced mitophagy, which built a new balance between mitophagy and damaged mitochondria accumulation.

Fueling the rugby player: maximizing performance on and off the pitch

Fueling the rugby athlete requires a sports nutrition plan that balances energy intake with energy output while providing the athlete with adequate fuel for recovery. The content and timing of meals are fundamental parts of a successful regimen and often require the athlete to participate in extensive planning and preparation to succeed. Carbohydrates, protein, and fat are the primary fuel of the rugby athlete's diet, and proper hydration is imperative to optimize performance. The use of dietary supplements such as energy drinks and caffeine are controversial, and the supplementation of vitamins and minerals is generally not recommended. The use of creatine monohydrate as a supplement to a well-balanced diet has been shown to be safe and effective. With the help of sports nutritionists, team physicians, educated athletes, and coaches, a multifactorial all-encompassing plan is required generally to maximize optimal performance on and off the rugby pitch.

The effects of caffeine, nicotine, ethanol, and tetrahydrocannabinol on exercise performance

Caffeine, nicotine, ethanol and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are among the most prevalent and culturally accepted drugs in western society. For example, in Europe and North America up to 90% of the adult population drinks coffee daily and, although less prevalent, the other drugs are also used extensively by the population. Smoked tobacco, excessive alcohol consumption and marijuana (cannabis) smoking are addictive and exhibit adverse health effects. These drugs are not only common in the general population, but have also made their way into elite sports because of their purported performance-altering potential. Only one of the drugs (i.e., caffeine) has enough scientific evidence indicating an ergogenic effect. There is some preliminary evidence for nicotine as an ergogenic aid, but further study is required; cannabis and alcohol can exhibit ergogenic potential under specific circumstances but are in general believed to be ergolytic for sports performance. These drugs are currently (THC, ethanol) or have been (caffeine) on the prohibited list of the World Anti-Doping Agency or are being monitored (nicotine) due to their potential ergogenic or ergolytic effects. The aim of this brief review is to evaluate the effects of caffeine, nicotine, ethanol and THC by: 1) examining evidence supporting the ergogenic or ergolytic effects; 2) providing an overview of the mechanism(s) of action and physiological effects; and 3) where appropriate, reviewing their impact as performance-altering aids used in recreational and elite sports.

Transitions into and out of intercollegiate athletic involvement and risky drinking

OBJECTIVE

Cross-sectional data show that college athletes consume more alcohol and experience more general alcohol-related problems than those not participating in athletics. To our knowledge, the current study is the first to use a longitudinal design to examine the extent to which the course of drinking and alcohol-related problems relates to involvement in intercollegiate athletics, including transitioning into and out of athletic involvement.

METHOD

Participants were drawn from a sample of 3,720 college students from the Intensive Multivariate Prospective Alcohol College-Transitions Study who completed a survey every semester through their fourth year. Four groups were created based on athletic involvement status at baseline (freshman year) and follow-up (senior year): nonathlete, nonathlete (no reported athletic involvement at either time point), nonathlete, athlete (nonathlete at freshman year, athlete at senior year), athlete, nonathlete (athlete at freshman year, nonathlete at senior year), and athlete, athlete (athlete at freshman year, athlete at senior year).

RESULTS

A series of repeated measures analyses were then conducted to test for developmental differences among the athlete groups involving alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems. Although findings differed as a function of alcohol outcome and comparison among various groups with differing athletic involvement, the general pattern of results showed that individuals who were more athletically involved demonstrated sharper increases in problem drinking (i.e., heavy drinking, frequency of intoxication, alcohol-related problems) during the college years.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the apparent risk associated with participation in intercollegiate athletics on college drinking.

Alcohol-induced deterioration in primary antioxidant and glutathione family enzymes reversed by exercise training in the liver of old rats

Chronic alcohol consumption causes severe hepatic oxidative damage, particularly to old subjects by decreasing various antioxidant enzymes. In this study, we test the hypothesis that exercise training can protect the aging liver against alcohol-induced oxidative damage. Two different age groups of Wistar albino rats (3 months young, n=24; 18 months old, n=24) were evenly divided into four groups: control (Con), exercise trained (Tr, 23 m/min 30 min/day, 5 days/week for 2 months), ethanol drinking/treated (Et, 2.0 g/kg b.w. orally), and exercise training plus ethanol drinking/treated (Tr+Et). We found significantly (P<.001) lowered hepatic antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase, catalase, selenium (Se)-dependent glutathione peroxidase (Se-GSH-Px), Se-non-dependent glutathione peroxidase (non-Se-GSH-Px), glutathione reductase, and glutathione S-transferase activities in aged rats compared with young. Age-related decrease in antioxidant enzyme status was further exacerbated with ethanol drinking, which indicates liver in aged rats is more susceptible to oxidative damage because of decreased free radical scavenging system in aged/old ethanol-drinking rats. However, the decrease in liver antioxidant enzymes status with ethanol consumption was ameliorated by 2 months exercise training in old and young rats. These results demonstrate that age-associated decrease in hepatic free radical scavenging system exacerbated by ethanol drinking. For the first time, we found that this deterioration was significantly reversed by exercise training in aging liver, thus protects against alcohol-induced oxidative damage.

Omic analyses unravels global molecular changes in the brain and liver of a rat model for chronic Sake (Japanese alcoholic beverage) intake

The effects of chronic administration of Sake (Japanese alcoholic beverage, Nihonshu) on brain and liver of female F334 (Fisher) rats were surveyed via global omic analyses using DNA microarray, 2-DE, and proton nuclear magnetic resonance. Rats weaned at 4 wk of age were given free access to Sake (15% alcohol), instead of water. At 13 months of age, and 24 h after withdrawal of Sake supply, rats were sacrificed, and the whole brain and liver tissues dissected for analyses. In general, molecular changes in brain were found to be less than those in liver. Transcriptomics data revealed 36 and 9, and 80 and 62 up- and down-regulated genes, in the brain and liver, respectively, with binding and catalytic activity gene categories the most prominently changed. Results suggested Sake-induced fragility of brain and liver toxicity/damage, though no significant abnormalities in growth were seen. At protein level, a striking decrease was found in the expression of NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) Fe-S protein 1 in brain, suggesting attenuation of mitochondrial metabolism. In liver, results again suggested an attenuation of mitochondrial function and, in addition, glycoproteins with unknown function were induced at protein and gene levels, suggesting possible changes in glycoprotein binding in that organ. Metabolomic analysis of brain revealed significant increases in valine, arginine/ornithine, alanine, glutamine, and choline with decreases in isoleucine, N-acetyl aspartate, taurine, glutamate, and gamma aminobutyric acid. Our results provide a detailed inventory of molecular components of both brain and liver after Sake intake, and may help to better understand effects of chronic Sake drinking.

Alcohol consumption: the good, the bad, and the indifferent

Dietary ethanol (alcohol) is the most widely consumed drug worldwide. High levels of mortality, morbidity, and social malaise are associated with abuse of alcohol, and increasing numbers of women and youth are abusing alcohol. However, strong epidemiological data demonstrate a U- or J-shaped relationship between volume of alcohol consumed and all-cause mortality or disease burden. Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with a lower risk of all-cause mortality and disease burden than are abstinence and immoderate drinking. A brief review of the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of ethanol is provided with a discussion of the impact of gender differences. Potential mechanisms by which ethanol, ethanol metabolites, and (or) phytochemicals, as associated with different types of ethanol-containing beverages, are discussed in regards to the beneficial and detrimental impacts they may have on physiological system functioning and mortality or disease burden. Per capita consumption of ethanol-containing beverages varies across geo-political regions worldwide. A more recent research focus is the impact of consumption patterns on consumption volumes as they relate to disease and mortality. Certain drinking patterns moderate overall volume of ethanol consumption. Thus, an emerging approach to the study of alcohol consumption in populations is to consider both the volume and pattern of consumption as they relate to mortality and disease burden. Alcohol consumption patterns among athletes are discussed; physiological implications of alcohol abuse in this population are outlined. Current guidelines for the consumption of alcohol are reviewed. Alcohol consumption guidelines reflect the current scientific understanding of both the benefits of moderate alcohol consumption and the detriments of immoderate alcohol consumption.

Alcohol and football

The use of alcohol is often intimately associated with sport, and the association is particularly strong in football. As well as providing a source of energy, alcohol (ethanol) has metabolic, cardiovascular, thermoregulatory, and neuromuscular actions that may affect exercise performance. Its actions on the central nervous system, however, result in decrements in skill and behavioural changes that may have adverse effects on performance. There is also evidence of dose-dependent decrements in aerobic capacity. Although the mechanisms are not well understood, the aftermath of alcohol use (hangover) may also adversely affect performance for many hours after intoxication. Alcohol intoxication may adversely affect the player's dietary choices by displacing carbohydrate from the diet at a time when restoration of glycogen stores should be a priority.

The effect of alcohol on athletic performance

The use of alcohol is often intimately associated with sport. As well as providing a source of energy, alcohol (ethanol) has metabolic, cardiovascular, thermoregulatory, and neuromuscular actions that may affect exercise performance. Strength is minimally affected, and performance impairments depend on the dose of alcohol and subject habituation to alcohol intake, exercise duration, environmental conditions, and other factors. Central nervous system function is impaired at high doses, resulting in decrements in cognitive function and motor skill, as well as behavioral changes that may have adverse effects on performance. Effects may persist for hours after intoxication.

Physical training ameliorates chronic alcohol-induced hypertension and aortic reactivity in rats

AIMS

The aim of this study was to investigate the interactive effect of physical training and chronic ethanol ingestion on changes in blood pressure (BP) and aortic reactivity response in rats.

METHODS

Male Fisher rats were divided into four groups of seven animals each and treated as follows: (i) control (5% sucrose, orally) daily for 12 weeks; (ii) ethanol (4 g kg(-1), orally) daily for 12 weeks; (iii) exercise training on treadmill followed by sucrose daily for 12 weeks; (iv) exercise training on treadmill followed by ethanol daily for 12 weeks. The body weight and BP were recorded every week. The animals were anaesthetized with pentobarbital after 12 weeks; blood and thoracic aorta were isolated and analysed for ethanol and reactivity response using tissue bath technique, respectively.

RESULTS

The data show that exercise training significantly lowered the weight gain 6-12 weeks in ethanol-treated rats compared to ethanol alone or control rats. The systolic and mean BP significantly elevated 6-12 weeks, whereas diastolic BP elevated 8-12 weeks after ethanol ingestion. Exercise training lowered the BP close to the normal control values in ethanol fed rats. Blood ethanol level significantly elevated in ethanol group but decreased in exercise plus alcohol group. Aortic contractile response to phenylephrine in ethanol or control groups was attenuated by training with or without intact endothelium. Ethanol significantly reduced the aortic relaxation response to acetylcholine whereas training enhanced the relaxation response with intact endothelium. The relaxation responses to adenosine and sodium nitroprusside in the aortic ring segments of rats with or without endothelium were decreased in ethanol group which were attenuated by exercise training.

CONCLUSIONS

Physical training attenuates the chronic ethanol-induced hypertension via reduction of body weight, clearance of ethanol, and augmentation of the aortic endothelial relaxation response in rats.