Strength testing and training of rowers: a review

An Assessment of the Ratio between Upper Body Push and Pull Strength in Female and Male Elite Swedish Track and Field Throwers

Data on the strength ratio between agonist and antagonist muscles are frequently examined in sports testing, given its correlation with athletic performance. The purpose of this study was to determine the agonist-to-antagonist ratio of upper body strength in female and male elite Swedish track and field throwers using a new push (bench press) and pull (supine bench row) test device, and to determine its reliability. The study involved eight female and nine male athletes, aged 19-29 years, engaging, respectively, in discus, hammer, and shot put competitions at both national and international levels. The athletes' maximum isometric force was assessed during the bench press (push) and supine bench row (pull) exercises, respectively, using a custom-built test device. The test-retest reliability of the device was also examined. The total push-to-pull strength ratio for the female throwers was 1.15, whereas male throwers demonstrated a ratio of 1.22. Total push and pull force for the female throwers was significantly less than for the male throwers (5511 N vs. 8970 N, p < 0.001). Intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.93 to 0.96 for the bench press and supine bench row exercise, indicating that the push and pull test device was highly reliable. The main findings of this study were that elite female and male discus, hammer, and shot put throwers exhibited 15% and 22% more pushing (bench press) than pulling (supine bench row) strength. Push and pull strength in the female throwers ranged from 47% to 71% of that of the male throwers. The push and pull test device is a reliable tool in establishing the agonist-to-antagonist ratio of upper body strength of athletes. Coaches and athletes may benefit from examining upper body push and pull strength ratios for training planning and prescription.

Impact of Lifting Straps on the Relationship Between Maximum Repetitions to Failure and Lifting Velocity During the Prone Bench Pull Exercise

BACKGROUND

Fastest mean (MVfastest) and peak (PVfastest) velocity of the set have been proposed to predict the maximum number of repetitions to failure (RTF) during the Smith machine prone bench pull (PBP) exercise.

HYPOTHESIS

Goodness-of-fit would be higher for individualized compared with generalized RTF-velocity relationships and comparable for both execution equipment conditions (with or without straps), and the MVfastest and PVfastest associated with each RTF would be comparable between execution equipment and prediction methods (multiple- vs 2-point method).

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 3.

METHODS

After determining the PBP 1-repetition maximum (1RM), 20 resistance-trained male athletes performed 2 sessions randomly, with and without lifting straps, consisting of single sets to failure against the same load sequence (60% to 80% to 70% 1RM). Generalized (pooling data from all subjects) and individualized (separately for each subject using multiple-point or 2-point methods) RTF-velocity relationships were constructed.

RESULTS

Individualized RTF-velocity relationships were always stronger than generalized RFT-velocity relationships, but comparable with (MVfastest: r2 = 0.87-0.99]; PVfastest: r2 = 0.88-1.00]) and without (MVfastest: r2 = 0.82-1.00; PVfastest: r2 = 0.89-0.99]) lifting straps. The velocity values associated with each RTF were comparable between execution equipment (P ≥ 0.22), but higher for the multiple-point compared with the 2-point method (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

The use of lifting straps during the Smith machine PBP exercise does not affect the goodness-of-fit of the RTF-velocity relationships or the velocity values associated with different RTFs. However, caution should be exercised when using different methods.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The benefits of the RTF-velocity relationships can be extrapolated when using lifting straps, and the 2-point method can also be used as a quick and more fatigue-free procedure. Nevertheless, it is imperative for coaches to ensure that these relationships are reflective of fatigue experienced during training.

Contribution of different strength determinants on distinct phases of Olympic rowing performance in adolescent athletes

Aerobic metabolism dominates Olympic rowing, but research on the relative contribution of strength and power demands is limited. This study aimed to identify the contribution of different strength determinants for distinct phases of rowing ergometer performance. The cross-sectional analysis comprised of 14 rowing athletes (4 female, 10 male, age: 18.8 ± 3.0y, 16.9 ± 2.2y). Measurements included anthropometrics, maximal strength of leg press, trunk extension and flexion, mid-thigh pull (MTP) and handgrip strength, VO2max, and a 2000 m time trial, where peak forces at the start, middle and end phase were assessed. Additionally, rate of force development (RFD) was assessed during the isometric leg press and MTP with intervals of 150, 350 ms and 150, 300 ms, respectively. Stepwise regression models for ergometer performance showed that the start phase was mainly explained by maximal trunk extension and RFD 300 ms of MTP (R2 = 0.91, p < 0.001) and the middle section by VO2max, maximal leg press strength and sitting height (R2 = 0.84, p < 0.001). For the end phase, a best fit was observed for trunk flexion, RFD 350 ms of leg press, body height and sex (R2 = 0.97 p < 0.001), whereas absolute VO2max, trunk flexion and sex explained variance over the entire 2000 m time trial (R2 = 0.98, p < 0.001). It appears that for the high acceleration in the start phase, force transmission through maximum strength for trunk extension is essential, while fast power production along the kinetic chain is also relevant. Additionally, the results support that maximal force complements the reliance on VO2max. Further intervention studies are needed to refine training recommendations.

Demarcation of Intensity From 3 to 5 Zones Aids in Understanding Physiological Performance Progression in Highly Trained Under-23 Rowing Athletes

ABSTRACT

Watts, SP, Binnie, MJ, Goods, PSR, Hewlett, J, Fahey-Gilmour, J, and Peeling, P. Demarcation of intensity from 3 to 5 zones aids in understanding physiological performance progression in highly trained under-23 rowing athletes. J Strength Cond Res 37(11): e593-e600, 2023-The purpose of this investigation was to compare 2 training intensity distribution models (3 and 5 zone) in 15 highly trained rowing athletes ( n = 8 male; n = 7 female; 19.4 ± 1.1 years) to determine the impact on primary (2,000-m single-scull race) and secondary (2,000-m ergometer time trial, peak oxygen consumption [V̇O 2 peak], lactate threshold 2 [LT2 power]) performance variables. Performance was assessed before and after 4 months training, which was monitored through a smart watch (Garmin Ltd, Olathe, KS) and chest-strap heart rate (HR) monitor (Wahoo Fitness, Atlanta, GA). Two training intensity distribution models were quantified and compared: a 3-zone model (Z1: between 50% V̇O 2 peak and lactate threshold 1 (LT1); Z2: between LT1 and 95% LT2; Z3: >95% LT2) and a 5-zone model (T1-T5), where Z1 and Z3 were split into 2 additional zones. There was significant improvement in LT2 power for both male (4.08% ± 1.83, p < 0.01) and female (3.52% ± 3.38, p = 0.02) athletes, with male athletes also demonstrating significant improvement in 2,000-m ergometer time trial (2.3% ± 1.92, p = 0.01). Changes in V̇O 2 peak significantly correlated with high-quality aerobic training (percent time in T2 zone; r = 0.602, p = 0.02), whereas changes in LT2 power significantly correlated with "threshold" training (percent time in T4 zone; r = 0.529, p = 0.04). These correlations were not evident when examining intensity distribution through the 3-zone model. Accordingly, a 5-zone intensity model may aid in understanding the progression of secondary performance metrics in rowing athletes; however, primary (on-water) performance remains complex to quantify.

[Association between biological maturity, body constitution and physical fitness with performance on a rowing ergometer in elite youth female rowers]

BACKGROUND

There is a gap in the literature regarding predictors of rowing performance in young rowers. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate associations between parameters of biological maturity, body constitution and physical fitness with rowing performance in young female elite rowers.

METHODS

A total of 26 female rowers aged 13.1 ± 0.5 years (maturity offset: + 2.2 ± 0.5 years from peak height velocity; training volume: 10 hours/week) volunteered to participate in this study. During the performance tests in March 2016/2017, biological maturity (e. g. maturity offset), body constitution (e. g. body height/mass, lean body mass, body fat mass) and physical fitness were assessed. Physical fitness tests included the assessment of muscle strength (1-RM bench pull, leg press, maximal handgrip strength), muscle power (standing long jump test), muscular endurance (trunk muscle endurance test [Bourban test]), dynamic balance (Y-balance test) and change-of-direction speed (multistage shuttle run). Finally, rowing performance was analysed using a 700-m rowing ergometer test. A linear regression analysis was computed for the models (1) biological maturity, (2) biological maturity and body constitution, and (3) biologic maturity, body constitution, and physical fitness.

RESULTS

The statistical analysis showed significant (p≤ 0.01) medium-to-large sized correlations (0.57 ≤r≤ 0.8) between biological maturity, body constitution (e. g. body height/mass, lean body mass) and physical fitness (e. g. 1-RM bench pull, maximal handgrip strength, Bourban test) with rowing performance. Model 3 with the predictors body constitution (i. e. lean mass) and muscular endurance (i. e. Bourban test) showed the largest explained variance for 700-m rowing ergometer performance (R² = 0.94, Akaike information criterion [AIC] = 82.1). Explained variance of model 3 was higher compared with model 1 (R² = 0.6, AIC = 131.5) and model 2 (R² = 0.63, AIC = 111.6).

CONCLUSIONS

As a result of this study, coaches involved in junior rowing should focus on characteristics such as biological maturity, body constitution and physical fitness (muscle strength, muscular endurance) during talent development as these correlated highly with rowing ergometer performance.

"A feeling for run and rhythm": coaches' perspectives of performance, talent, and progression in rowing

The understanding of rowing performance has been predominantly gained through quantitative sports science-based research. In combination with this objective information, coaches' experiences may provide important contextual information for how this quantitative evidence is implemented into training programmes. The aims of this study were to (1) explore coaches' perspectives of performance indicators for competitive rowing in junior rowers, and (2) identify coaches' recommendations for developing effective technique and movement competency among junior rowers who have the potential to transition to elite competition. Twenty-seven semi-structured interviews were conducted with experienced rowing coaches through purposive sampling of an accredited coaching network. Participants' coaching experience ranged from 5 to 46 (M = 22, SD = 10) years. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Three overarching themes were identified including, (1) getting the basics right, (2) targeting types of talent, and (3) complexities of performance. Based on these findings, sequence and boat feel, supported through the movement competency provided by hip flexibility and the trunk musculature, were considered critical for executing correct technique. Developing talent and understanding successful performance are both complex concepts when considering the individual athlete. Coaches' perspectives provided insight into key components of performance to enhance our understanding of how to better develop junior rowers.

Validity and Reliability of an Isometric Row in Quantifying Maximal Force Production in Collegiate Rowers

ABSTRACT

Pineda, D, Hudak, J, Bingham, GE, and Taber, CB. Validity and reliability of an isometric row in quantifying maximal force production in collegiate rowers. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between a maximal isometric strength test with a maximal dynamic strength test. The main outcome was to evaluate the isometric test to determine if it was a valid and reliable measurement tool for testing and monitoring of rowing athletes. Collegiate Division 1 rowers were tested on measures of maximal dynamic and isometric strength on 2 occasions separated by 14 days. Thirty-two female athletes (age: 19.9 11.0 years; height: 168.2 ± 7.6 cm; body mass: 71.3 as13.2 kg) participated in this study. Although the isometric test had greater reliability, both tests displayed good-to-excellent reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.79-0.92). Strong correlations were present for the relationship between isometric and dynamic strength tests (r = 0.76-0.82, p = <0.001). The data indicate that the isometric row test is valid and reliable compared with dynamic testing and may be used in conjunction with dynamic testing in the evaluation of collegiate rowers.

Modeling the Relationship between Load and Repetitions to Failure in Resistance Training: A Bayesian Analysis

PURPOSE

To identify the relationship between load and the number of repetitions performed to momentary failure in the pin press exercise, the present study compared different statistical model types and structures using a Bayesian approach.

METHODS

Thirty resistance-trained men and women were tested on two separate occasions. During the first visit, participants underwent assessment of their one-repetition maximum (1-RM) in the pin press exercise. On the second visit, they performed sets to momentary failure at 90%, 80% and 70% of their 1-RM in a fixed order during a single session. The relationship between relative load and repetitions performed to failure was fitted using linear regression, exponential regression and the critical load model. Each model was fitted according to the Bayesian framework in two ways: using an across-subjects pooled data structure and using a multilevel structure. Models were compared based on the variance explained (R²) and leave-one-out cross-validation information criterion (LOOIC).

RESULTS

Multilevel models, which incorporate higher-level commonalities into individual relationships, demonstrated a substantially better fit (R²: 0.97-0.98) and better predictive accuracy compared to generalized pooled-data models (R²: 0.89-0.93). The multilevel 2-parameter exponential regression emerged as the best representation of data in terms of model fit, predictive accuracy and model simplicity.

CONCLUSION

The relationship between load and repetitions performed to failure follows an individually expressed exponential trend in the pin press exercise. To accurately predict the load that is associated with a certain repetition maximum, the relationship should therefore be modeled on a subject-specific level.

Can the 20 and 60 s All-Out Test Predict the 2000 m Indoor Rowing Performance in Athletes?

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to look for a new, simple, and fast method of assessing and monitoring indoor race performance and to assess the relationship between 20 s, 60 s, and 2000 m indoor rowing performances of youth rowers to evaluate their anaerobic profile.

Methods: For three consecutive days, 17 young able-bodied male rowers (15.8 ± 2.0 years), performed three tests (20 s, 60 s, and 2000 m) on a rowing ergometer. Mean power (W₂₀, W₆₀, and W₂₀₀₀) and 2000 m time (t₂₀₀₀) were considered for the analysis. In addition, 14 athletes (15–18 years) performed a 20 s, 60 s, and 2000 m tests and used this as a control group. To define the anaerobic profile of the athletes, W₂₀ and W₆₀ were normalized as percentages of W₂₀₀₀. Associations between variables were determined by means of the Pearson correlation coefficient (r).

Results: Mean power decreased with increasing test duration (W₂₀ = 525.1 ± 113.7 W; W₆₀ = 476.1 ± 91.0 W; W₂₀₀₀₌312.9 ± 56.0 W) and negative correlations emerged between t₂₀₀₀ (418.5 ± 23.1 s) and W₂₀ (r = −0.952, p < 0.0001) and W₆₀ (r = −0.930, p < 0.0001).

Conclusion: These findings indicate that W₂₀ and W₆₀ are significant predictors of 2000 m rowing ergometer performances. Furthermore, normalized W₂₀ and W₆₀ can be used to evaluate athletes and as a reference for planning anaerobic training sessions, on a rowing ergometer.

Relationship Between Strength and Conditioning Assessments and Rowing Performance in Female Collegiate Athletes

ABSTRACT

Folk, AL, Garcia, CA, Whitney, SH, and Kovacs, SJ. Relationship between strength and conditioning assessments and rowing performance in female collegiate athletes. J Strength Cond Res 36(6): 1618-1621, 2022-The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between strength and conditioning variables and rowing performance, as measured by a 2000 m ergometer time, in female collegiate rowers. Twenty-four female collegiate rowers qualified for this study by completing both types of assessments and a demographic questionnaire. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were used to determine the association between the total 2000 m ergometer time and each strength and conditioning assessment. The assessments included a 1 repetition maximum (1RM) squat and a 1RM hang clean. After this, all significant correlations were placed in a stepwise linear regression analysis to predict the total 2000 m ergometer time. The 1RM squat and 1RM hang clean correlated with 2000 m ergometer performance (p = 0.034 and p = 0.002, respectively). Only the 1RM squat emerged as a predictor of 2000 m ergometer performance. This study highlights that the 1RM squat may be a way to predict rowing performance and build successful female collegiate rowing teams.

Reproducibility of strength performance and strength-endurance profiles: A test-retest study

The present study was designed to evaluate the test-retest consistency of repetition maximum tests at standardized relative loads and determine the robustness of strength-endurance profiles across test-retest trials. Twenty-four resistance-trained males and females (age, 27.4 ± 4.0 y; body mass, 77.2 ± 12.6 kg; relative bench press one-repetition maximum [1-RM], 1.19 ± 0.23 kg•kg-1) were assessed for their 1-RM in the free-weight bench press. After 48 to 72 hours, they were tested for the maximum number of achievable repetitions at 90%, 80% and 70% of their 1-RM. A retest was completed for all assessments one week later. Gathered data were used to model the relationship between relative load and repetitions to failure with respect to individual trends using Bayesian multilevel modeling and applying four recently proposed model types. The maximum number of repetitions showed slightly better reliability at lower relative loads (ICC at 70% 1-RM = 0.86, 90% highest density interval: [0.71, 0.93]) compared to higher relative loads (ICC at 90% 1-RM = 0.65 [0.39, 0.83]), whereas the absolute agreement was slightly better at higher loads (SEM at 90% 1-RM = 0.7 repetitions [0.5, 0.9]; SEM at 70% 1-RM = 1.1 repetitions [0.8, 1.4]). The linear regression model and the 2-parameters exponential regression model revealed the most robust parameter estimates across test-retest trials. Results testify to good reproducibility of repetition maximum tests at standardized relative loads obtained over short periods of time. A complementary free-to-use web application was developed to help practitioners calculate strength-endurance profiles and build individual repetition maximum tables based on robust statistical models.

Strength and Athletic Adaptations Produced by 4 Programming Models: A Velocity-Based Intervention Using a Real-Context Routine

PURPOSE

To compare the strength and athletic adaptations induced by 4 programming models.

METHODS

Fifty-two men were allocated into 1 of the following models: linear programming (intensity increased while intraset volume decreased), undulating programming (intensity and intraset volume were varied in each session or set of sessions), reverse programming (intensity decreased while intraset volume increased), or constant programming (intensity and intraset volume kept constant throughout the training plan). All groups completed a 10-week resistance-training program made up of the free-weight bench press, squat, deadlift, prone bench pull, and shoulder press exercises. The 4 models used the same frequency (2 sessions per week), number of sets (3 per exercise), interset recoveries (4 min), and average intensity throughout the intervention (77.5%). The velocity-based method was used to accurately adjust the planned intensity for each model.

RESULTS

The 4 programming models exhibited significant pre-post changes in most strength variables analyzed. When considering the effect sizes for the 5 exercises trained, we observed that the undulating programming (mean effect size = 0.88-2.92) and constant programming (mean effect size = 0.61-1.65) models induced the highest and lowest strength enhancements, respectively. Moreover, the 4 programming models were found to be effective to improve performance during shorter (jump and sprint tests) and longer (upper- and lower-limb Wingate test) anaerobic tasks, with no significant differences between them.

CONCLUSION

The linear, undulating, reverse, and constant programming models are similarly effective to improve strength and athletic performance when they are implemented in a real-context routine.

Comparison of Anthropometric and Physiological Profiles of Hungarian Female Rowers across Age Categories, Rankings, and Stages of Sports Career

There is very little research on the anthropometric and physiological profiles of lower-ranked young female athletes, even though, in most rowing clubs, such rowers constitute the vast majority. Therefore, this study investigated the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young Hungarian female rowers of different age categories and sports rankings (international vs. club). Anthropometric and physiological profiles were created for 36 junior (15–16 years), 26 older-junior (17–18 years), and 8 senior (19–21 years) female rowers who were club and international ranked members of seven of the largest Hungarian rowing clubs. Rowers >17-years-old with international rankings significantly outperformed their age-group peers with club rankings in terms of power, absolute VO2 max, and time to cover 2000 m, among other differences, but such differences were not observed with junior rowers. In all age groups, the length of the athletes’ sports career was not significantly associated with differences in anthropometric and physiological characteristics. This study suggests that ranking is not associated with differences in the anthropometric and physiological characteristics of juniors. Thus, with non-elite juniors, it can be more difficult to predict competition outcomes based on differences in anthropometric and physiological profiles.

Training-Induced Muscle Adaptations During Competitive Preparation in Elite Female Rowers

Training-induced adaptations in muscle morphology, including their magnitude and individual variation, remain relatively unknown in elite athletes. We reported changes in rowing performance and muscle morphology during the general and competitive preparation phases in elite rowers. Nineteen female rowers completed 8 weeks of general preparation, including concurrent endurance and high-load resistance training (HLRT). Seven rowers were monitored during a subsequent 16 weeks of competitive preparation, including concurrent endurance and resistance training with additional plyometric loading (APL). Vastus lateralis muscle volume, physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), fascicle length, and pennation angle were measured using 3D ultrasonography. Rowing ergometer power output was measured as mean power in the final 4 minutes of an incremental test. Rowing ergometer power output improved during general preparation [+2 ± 2%, effect size (ES) = 0.22, P = 0.004], while fascicle length decreased (−5 ± 8%, ES = −0.47, P = 0.020). Rowing power output further improved during competitive preparation (+5 ± 3%, ES = 0.52, P = 0.010). Here, morphological adaptations were not significant, but demonstrated large ESs for fascicle length (+13 ± 19%, ES = 0.93), medium for pennation angle (−9 ± 15%, ES = −0.71), and small for muscle volume (+8 ± 13%, ES = 0.32). Importantly, rowers showed large individual differences in their training-induced muscle adaptations. In conclusion, vastus lateralis muscles of elite female athletes are highly adaptive to specific training stimuli, and adaptations largely differ between individual athletes. Therefore, coaches are encouraged to closely monitor their athletes' individual (muscle) adaptations to better evaluate the effectiveness of their training programs and finetune them to the athlete's individual needs.

Differences in the Anthropometric and Physiological Profiles of Hungarian Male Rowers of Various Age Categories, Rankings and Career Lengths: Selection Problems

Background: Little is known about the anthropometric and physiological profiles of lower-ranking athletes who aspire to rise to the pinnacle of their profession.

Aim: The aim of this study was to create anthropometric and physiological profiles of Hungarian male rowers of different age categories (15–16, 17–18, and over 18 years), sports rankings and career lengths.

Materials and Methods: Anthropometric and physiological profiles were created for 55 juniors, 52 older juniors and 23 seniors representing seven of the largest Hungarian rowing clubs. One-way independent analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare arithmetic means.

Results: Rowers in older age categories were significantly taller (185.0 ± 5.0 cm vs. 183.0 ± 7.3 cm vs. 178.7 ± 7.2 cm) and heavier (81.1 ± 8.8 kg vs. 73.7 ± 8.4 kg vs. 66.8 ± 12.3 kg) than their younger peers, with significantly higher BMI values and larger body dimensions. Compared to younger athletes, rowers in older age categories also covered 2,000 m significantly faster (6.6 ± 0.3 min vs. 6.9 ± 0.4 min vs. 7.5 ± 0.5 min) while developing significantly more power (372.2 ± 53.0 W vs. 326.8 ± 54.5 W vs. 250.6 ± 44.6 W). Similarly, seniors and older juniors had higher values of maximal oxygen uptake and force max (by 6.2 and 7.0 ml/kg/min, and by 263.4 and 169.8 N). Within the older juniors, internationally ranked rowers had significantly greater body height (+ 5.9 cm), body mass (+ 6.1 kg), sitting height (+ 2.7 cm), arm span (+ 7.9 cm), limb length (+ 3.73 cm) and body surface area (+ 0.21 m²). They also rowed 2,000 m significantly faster (–0.43 min, p < 0.001) and had significantly higher values of power (+ 58.3 W), relative power (+ 0.41 W/kg), jump height (+ 4.5 cm), speed max (+ 0.18 m/s) and force max (+ 163.22 N).

Conclusion: The study demonstrated that potential differences in anthropometric and physiological profiles are more difficult to capture in non-elite rowers, and that the final outcome may be determined by external factors. Therefore, athletes with superior aptitude for rowing are more difficult to select from among lower-ranking rowers, and further research is needed to determine specific training requirements to achieve the maximum rowing performance.

Energy deficiency impairs resistance training gains in lean mass but not strength: A meta-analysis and meta-regression

Short-term energy deficits impair anabolic hormones and muscle protein synthesis. However, the effects of prolonged energy deficits on resistance training (RT) outcomes remain unexplored. Thus, we conducted a systematic review of PubMed and SportDiscus for randomized controlled trials performing RT in an energy deficit (RT+ED) for ≥3 weeks. We first divided the literature into studies with a parallel control group without an energy deficit (RT+CON; Analysis A) and studies without RT+CON (Analysis B). Analysis A consisted of a meta-analysis comparing gains in lean mass (LM) and strength between RT+ED and RT+CON. Studies in Analysis B were matched with separate RT+CON studies for participant and intervention characteristics, and we qualitatively compared the gains in LM and strength between RT+ED and RT+CON. Finally, Analyses A and B were pooled into a meta-regression examining the relationship between the magnitude of the energy deficit and LM. Analysis A showed LM gains were impaired in RT+ED vs RT+CON (effect size (ES) = -0.57, p = 0.02), but strength gains were comparable between conditions (ES = -0.31, p = 0.28). Analysis B supports the impairment of LM in RT+ED (ES: -0.11, p = 0.03) vs RT+CON (ES: 0.20, p < 0.001) but not strength (RT+ED ES: 0.84; RT+CON ES: 0.81). Finally, our meta-regression demonstrated that an energy deficit of ~500 kcal · day^-1 prevented gains in LM. Individuals performing RT to build LM should avoid prolonged energy deficiency, and individuals performing RT to preserve LM during weight loss should avoid energy deficits >500 kcal day^-1 .

Inspiratory Muscle Training Program Using the PowerBreath®: Does It Have Ergogenic Potential for Respiratory and/or Athletic Performance? A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to provide scientific evidence regarding the effects of training on respiratory muscle training’s impact with the PowerBreath^®. A systematic analysis based on the PRISMA guides and a conducted research structured around the bases of Web of Science, Scopus, Medline/PubMed, SciELO y Cochrane Library Plus. Six articles published before January 2021 were included. The documentation and quantification of heterogeneity in every meta-analysis were directed through Cochran’s Q test and the statistic I²; additionally, a biased publication analysis was made using funnel plots, whose asymmetry was quantified Egger’s regression. The methodological quality was assessed through McMaster’s. PowerBreath^® administering a ≥ 15% resistive load of the maximum inspiratory pressure (PIM) achieves significant improvements (54%) in said pressure within 4 weeks of commencing the inspiratory muscle training. The maximal volume of oxygen (VO₂max) considerable enhancements was achieved from the 6 weeks associated with the maximum inspiratory pressure ≥ 21.5% post inspiratory muscle training onwards. Conversely, a significant blood lactate concentration decrement occurred from the 4th week of inspiratory muscle training, after a maximum inspiratory pressure ≥ 6.8% increment. PowerBreath^® is a useful device to stimulate sport performance and increase pulmonary function.

Resistance Training Affects Neuromuscular Fatigue But Not Efficiency in Elite Rowers

PURPOSE

To investigate how resistance training (RT) in a regular training program affects neuromuscular fatigue (NMF) and gross efficiency (EGROSS) in elite rowers.

METHODS

Twenty-six elite male rowers performed 4 RT sessions within 10 days. At baseline and after the first and fourth RT, EGROSS and NMF were established. From breathing gas, EGROSS was determined during submaximal rowing tests. Using a countermovement jump test, NMF was assessed by jump height, flight time, flight-to-contraction-time ratio, peak power, and time to peak power. Muscle soreness was assessed using a 10-cm-long visual analog scale.

RESULTS

No significant differences were found for EGROSS (P = .565, ω2 = .032). Muscle soreness (P = .00, ω2 = .500) and time to peak power (P = .08, ω2 = 0.238) were higher compared with baseline at all test moments. Flight-to-contraction-time ratio, jump height, and peak power after the fourth RT differed from baseline (P < .05, ω2 = .36, ω2 = .38, and ω2 = .31) and from results obtained after the first RT (P < .05, ω2 = .36, ω2 = .47, and ω2 = .22).

CONCLUSIONS

RT in general does not influence EGROSS, but large individual differences (4.1%-14.8%) were observed. NMF is affected by RT, particularly after multiple sessions. During periods of intensified RT, imposed external load for low-intensity endurance training need not be altered, but rowers are recommended to abstain from intensive endurance training. Individual monitoring is strongly recommended.

Utilizing a Novel 2D Image Processing System for Relating Body Composition Metrics to Performance in Collegiate Female Rowers

The purpose of this study was to determine if rowing performance was associated with fat mass (FM) or fat-free mass (FFM) measured using a novel 2D digital image analysis system. Nineteen female rowers (ages = 20.3 ± 1.0 years, weight = 73.8 ± 8.3 kg, height = 172.7 ± 4.7 cm) participated in this study. FM and FFM were estimated with a smartphone application that uses an automated 2D image analysis program. Rowing performance was measured using a 2 km (2k) timed trial on an indoor ergometer. The average speed of the timed trial was recorded in raw units (m·s⁻¹) and adjusted for body weight (m·s⁻¹·kg⁻¹). FFM was significantly correlated to unadjusted 2k speed (r = 0.67, p < 0.05), but not for FM (r = 0.44, p > 0.05). When 2k speed was adjusted to account for body weight, significant correlations were found with FM (r = −0.56, p < 0.05), but not FFM (r = −0.34, p > 0.05). These data indicate that both FM and FFM are related to rowing performance in female athletes, but the significance of the relationships is dependent on overall body mass. In addition, the novel 2D imaging system appears to be a suitable field technique when relating body composition to rowing performance.

Comparison of Aerobic and Muscular Power Between Junior/U23 Slalom and Sprint Paddlers: An Analysis of International Medalists and Non-medalists

This study aimed to compare the aerobic power (treadmill running) and muscle power (bench press and bench pull) of Junior/U23 paddlers from Slovakia who won medals in international championships with that of those who did not take the podium. Forty-three Slovak Junior/U23 paddlers (sprint = 24, medalists = 8, non-medalists = 16; slalom = 19, medalists = 11, non-medalists = 8) were tested in 2018 and 2019 after the world championships. The maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max) and the velocity at maximal oxygen uptake (vVO_2max) were determined by the incremental running protocol (0% slope and 1 km⋅h^-1 increments every minute until volitional exhaustion). Mean maximal power from the entire concentric phase was recorded during bench press and bench pull exercises by the validated TENDO weightlifting analyzer. No interaction was obtained between medal and canoe discipline for VO_2max (p = 0.069, F = 3.495), vVO_2max (p = 0.552, F = 0.361) and absolute (bench press: p = 0.486, F = 0.495; bench pull: p = 0.429, F = 0.640) or relative (bench press: p = 0.767, F = 0.089; bench pull: p = 0.696, F = 0.155) mean maximal power. Conversely, a significant effect for the medal on the bench press (absolute p = 0.017, F = 6.170; relative p = 0.043, F = 4.384) and the bench pull (absolute p = 0.041, F = 4.470) mean maximal power were observed. Our study indicates the absolute mean power on the bench press as a prerequisite for success in international Junior/U23 championships of slalom and sprint canoeing. However, the mean power on bench pull seems to have a deeper influence on sprint paddlers when compared to slalom athletes. Regarding the aerobic power, the data from the treadmill testing did not reveal outcomes between medalists and non-medalists. This result can be associated with the lack of specificity of the incremental treadmill testing for canoeing, and future studies are encouraged to propose specific protocols to compare the aerobic power of medalists and non-medalists in international slalom and sprint championships.

Improved Strength and Recovery After Velocity-Based Training: A Randomized Controlled Trial

PURPOSE

The present intervention study examined the effects of intensity-matched velocity-based strength training with a 10% velocity loss (VL10) versus traditional 1-repetition maximum (1RM) based resistance training to failure (TRF) on 1RM and maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max) in a concurrent training setting.

METHODS

Using the minimization method, 21 highly trained rowers (4 females and 17 males; 19.6 [2.1] y, 1.83 [0.07] m, 74.6 [8.8] kg, V˙O2max: 64.9 [8.5] mL·kg-1·min-1) were either assigned to VL10 or TRF. In addition to rowing endurance training (about 75 min·d-1), both groups performed strength training (5 exercises, 80% 1RM, 4 sets, 2-3 min interset recovery, 2 times/week) over 8 weeks. Squat, deadlift, bench row, and bench press 1RM and V˙O2max rowing-ergometer ramp tests were completed. Overall recovery and overall stress were monitored every evening using the Short Recovery and Stress Scale.

RESULTS

Large and significant group × time interactions (P < .03, ηp2>.23, standard mean differences [SMD] > 0.65) in favor of VL10 (averaged +18.0% [11.3%]) were observed for squat, bench row, and bench press 1RM compared with TRF (averaged +8.0% [2.9%]). V˙O2max revealed no interaction effects (P = .55, ηp2=.01, standard mean difference < .23) but large time effects (P < .05, ηp2>.27). Significant group × time interactions (P = .001, ηp2>.54, SMD > |0.525|) in favor of VL10 were also observed for overall recovery and overall stress 24 and 48 hours after strength training.

CONCLUSIONS

VL10 serves as a promising means to improve strength capacity at lower repetitions and stress levels in highly trained athletes. Future research should investigate the interference effects of VL10 in strength endurance sports and its effects when increasing weekly VL10 sessions within one macrocycle.

Validation and Practical Applications of Performance in a 6-Min Rowing Test in the Danish Armed Forces

Personnel of the Danish Armed Forces must complete a yearly basic physical fitness test consisting of a Cooper’s 12-min run test (CRT) and four strength-related bodyweight exercises. However, there is no validated alternative to the CRT allowing injured or sailing personnel to conduct the yearly basic physical fitness test. Therefore, the aim of this study was to validate performance in a 6-min rowing ergometer test (6MRT) against CRT performance. Thirty-one individuals (M/F: 20/11, age: 34 ± 12 years) employed at the Danish Armed Forces completed testing on two independent days; (I) the CRT on an outdoor track and (II) a 6MRT with pulmonary measurements of breath-by-breath oxygen uptake. In addition, 5 participants (M/F: 4/1, age: 40 ± 10 years) completed re-testing of the 6MRT. No difference was observed between VO_2max estimated from the CRT and measured during the 6MRT. Absolute VO_2max correlated strongly (r = 0.95; p < 0.001) to performance in the 6MRT, and moderately (r = 0.80; p < 0.001) to performance in the CRT. Bodyweight (BW) and fat free mass (FFM) correlated stronger to performance in the 6MRT compared to the CRT. 6MRT re-testing yielded similar performance results. The 6MRT is a valid and reliable alternative to the CRT, allowing injured or sailing personnel of the Danish Armed Forces to complete the basic physical fitness test as required, albeit 6MRT performance demands must be made relative to bodyweight.

Injuries in female and male elite Korean rowing athletes: an epidemiological study

This study aimed to determine the patterns of injury associated with training activities in elite South Korean rowing athletes training for the Olympic Games. Data were prospectively collected between 2010 and 2019 at the Korea National Training Center in South Korea. Three sports medicine doctors assessed athletes, and the data were stratified according to sex, rowing style, weight class, site of injury, and severity of injury. The groups were compared using the c 2 test. The 95 % confidence interval with Poisson rates and exact Poisson test were used for comparison of rates. In total 514 injuries were recorded during the study period, with an average of 2.86 injuries per athlete annually; among these, over half (57.8 %) were mild injuries. Most injuries occurred in the lower extremities (42.0 %), followed by the trunk (30.2 %), the upper extremities (24.9 %), and the head and neck area (2.9 %). Weight class was significantly associated with severity of injury in all rowing athletes (p < 0.001), for both male and female rowing athletes (p = 0.006 and p = 0.014, respectively). Lightweight male athletes demonstrated higher incidence rate of injury than open-weight male athletes (p < 0.001). On the contrary, lightweight female athletes demonstrated lower incidence rates of injury than open-weight female athletes (p < 0.001). These findings on the incidence of training injuries and patterns based on rowing styles, sexes, and weight classes may elucidate the circumstances leading to injuries in elite Korean rowing athletes. Furthermore, these findings may contribute to the development of programs to enhance athletic performance and reduce the incidence of sports injuries.

Changes in Loaded Countermovement Jumps During Precompetition and Competition Training Mesocycles in Elite Rowers

Everett, KLA, Chapman, DW, Mitchell, JA, and Ball, N. Changes in loaded countermovement jumps during precompetition and competition training mesocycles in elite rowers. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-To assess changes in velocity, displacement, and power as an indicator of neuromuscular fatigue (NMF) within and between precompetition and competition mesocycles in elite male rowers using loaded countermovement jumps (CMJs). Twenty highly trained rowers completed regular training (on-water rowing, rowing ergometer, and resistance training sessions) in 2 consecutive mesocycles. Athletes completed a single set of 6 loaded (20 kg) CMJs in the first and final week of each mesocycle. Countermovement jumps were assessed for jump height (JH), eccentric displacement, mean velocity (MV), eccentric MV (EMV), and mean power. Changes between time points were reported as Cohen's d effect sizes (95% confidence interval [CI]). The magnitude of the differences was also considered based on their relative strength levels using a linear mixed model. Within the precompetition mesocycle, trivial-to-small reductions for all variables (0.5-4.1%) were observed. During the competition mesocycle, trivial-to-small increases were shown for EMV (1.4%) and eccentric displacement (2.0%) with no change in JH and small reductions in MV (0.5%) and mean power (2.8%). No differences between the precompetition and competition mesocycles were shown. Only mean power showed a significant reduction in weaker athletes (3.2%) compared with stronger athletes (2.3%). Training completed during a precompetition and competitive mesocycle did not result in significant decreases in athlete's loaded CMJ performance, indicating that NMF was minimized. Alternatively, use of a loaded CMJ may not be sensitive enough to observe NMF in elite rowers during the mesocycle immediately leading into and during a competition mesocycle.

Associations between Multimodal Fitness Assessments and Rowing Ergometer Performance in Collegiate Female Athletes

The purpose was to examine the association of critical power from a three-minute all-out row (CP_3-min) and peak power from a one-stroke maximum test (1-Stroke) with laboratory-based fitness assessments (peak oxygen consumption [V.O_2peak] and Wingate anaerobic test [WAnT]) and 6000 m (6K) and 2000 m (2K) rowing ergometer performance. Thirty-one female collegiate rowers (20.2 ± 1.1 years, 70.9 ± 6.9 kg, and 172.2 ± 4.8 cm) participated in fitness and rowing performance testing. Pearson's correlations, linear regression, and Cohen's q were used to determine statistical relationships. Absolute V.O_2peak values displayed significant correlations with 6K_total (-0.68), 6K_split (-0.68), 2K_total (-0.64), and 2K_split (-0.43). Relative V.O_2peak displayed significant correlations with 6K_total (-0.36), and 6K_split (-0.37). CP_3-min demonstrated significant correlations with 6K_total (-0.62), 6K_split (-0.62), 2K_total (-0.61), and 2K_split (-0.99). For 2K_split, a significant difference was observed between relative V.O_2peak and CP_3-min correlations with a "large" effect size (q = 2.367). Furthermore, 1-Stroke showed significant associations with 6K_total (-0.63), 6K_split (-0.63), 2K_total (-0.62), and 2K_split (-0.44), while WAnT produced non-significant correlations. Absolute V.O_2peak CP_3-min accounted for significant proportions of variance observed with performance measures (p < 0.05). Practitioners should consider incorporating CP_3-min and 1-Stroke as additional tests for gauging rowing performance.

Effects of Equal Volume Heavy-Resistance Strength Training Versus Strength Endurance Training on Physical Fitness and Sport-Specific Performance in Young Elite Female Rowers

Strength training is an important means for performance development in young rowers. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a 9-week equal volume heavy-resistance strength training (HRST) versus strength endurance training (SET) in addition to regular rowing training on primary (e.g., maximal strength/power) and secondary outcomes (e.g., balance) in young rowers. Twenty-six female elite adolescent rowers were assigned to an HRST (n = 12; age: 13.2 ± 0.5 yrs; maturity-offset: +2.0 ± 0.5 yrs) or a SET group (n = 14; age: 13.1 ± 0.5 yrs; maturity-offset: +2.1 ± 0.5 yrs). HRST and SET comprised lower- (i.e., leg press/knee flexion/extension), upper-limbs (i.e., bench press/pull; lat-pull down), and complex exercises (i.e., rowing ergometer). HRST performed four sets with 12 repetitions per set at an intensity of 75–95% of the one-repetition maximum (1-RM). SET conducted four sets with 30 repetitions per set at 50–60% of the 1-RM. Training volume was matched for overall repetitions × intensity × training per week. Pre-post training, tests were performed for the assessment of primary [i.e., maximal strength (e.g., bench pull/knee flexion/extension 1-RM/isometric handgrip test), muscle power (e.g., medicine-ball push test, triple hop, drop jump, and countermovement jump), anaerobic endurance (400-m run), sport-specific performance (700-m rowing ergometer trial)] and secondary outcomes [dynamic balance (Y-balance test), change-of-direction (CoD) speed (multistage shuttle-run test)]. Adherence rate was >87% and one athlete of each group dropped out. Overall, 24 athletes completed the study and no test or training-related injuries occurred. Significant group × time interactions were observed for maximal strength, muscle power, anaerobic endurance, CoD speed, and sport-specific performance (p ≤ 0.05; 0.45 ≤ d ≤ 1.11). Post hoc analyses indicated larger gains in maximal strength and muscle power following HRST (p ≤ 0.05; 1.81 ≤ d ≤ 3.58) compared with SET (p ≤ 0.05; 1.04 ≤ d ≤ 2.30). Furthermore, SET (p ≤ 0.01; d = 2.08) resulted in larger gains in sport-specific performance compared with HRST (p < 0.05; d = 1.3). Only HRST produced significant pre-post improvements for anaerobic endurance and CoD speed (p ≤ 0.05; 1.84 ≤ d ≤ 4.76). In conclusion, HRST in addition to regular rowing training was more effective than SET to improve selected measures of physical fitness (i.e., maximal strength, muscle power, anaerobic endurance, and CoD speed) and SET was more effective than HRST to enhance sport-specific performance gains in female elite young rowers.

The physiology of rowing with perspective on training and health

PURPOSE

This review presents a perspective on the expansive literature on rowing.

METHODS

The PubMed database was searched for the most relevant literature, while some information was obtained from books.

RESULTS

Following the life span of former rowers paved the way to advocate exercise for health promotion. Rowing involves almost all muscles during the stroke and competition requires a large oxygen uptake, which is challenged by the pulmonary diffusion capacity and restriction in blood flow to the muscles. Unique training adaptations allow for simultaneous engagement of the legs in the relatively slow movement of the rowing stroke that, therefore, involves primarily slow-twitch muscle fibres. Like other sport activities, rowing is associated with adaptation not only of the heart, including both increased internal diameters and myocardial size, but also skeletal muscles with hypertrophy of especially slow-twitch muscle fibres. The high metabolic requirement of intense rowing reduces blood pH and, thereby, arterial oxygen saturation decreases as arterial oxygen tension becomes affected.

CONCLUSION

Competitive rowing challenges most systems in the body including pulmonary function and circulatory control with implication for cerebral blood flow and neuromuscular activation. Thus, the physiology of rowing is complex, but it obviously favours large individuals with arms and legs that allow the development of a long stroke. Present inquiries include the development of an appropriately large cardiac output despite the Valsalva-like manoeuvre associated with the stroke, and the remarkable ability of the brain to maintain motor control and metabolism despite marked reductions in cerebral blood flow and oxygenation.

Effects of strength training on physical fitness and sport-specific performance in recreational, sub-elite, and elite rowers: A systematic review with meta-analysis

The purpose of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to examine the effects of strength training (ST) on selected components of physical fitness (e.g., lower/upper limb maximal strength, muscular endurance, jump performance, cardiorespiratory endurance) and sport-specific performance in rowers. Only studies with an active control group were included if they examined the effects of ST on at least one proxy of physical fitness and/or sport-specific performance in rowers. Weighted and averaged standardized mean differences (SMD) were calculated using random-effects models. Subgroup analyses were computed to identify effects of ST type or expertise level on sport-specific performance. Our analyses revealed significant small effects of ST on lower limb maximal strength (SMD = 0.42, p = 0.05) and on sport-specific performance (SMD = 0.32, p = 0.05). Non-significant effects were found for upper limb maximal strength, upper/lower limb muscular endurance, jump performance, and cardiorespiratory endurance. Subgroup analyses for ST type and expertise level showed non-significant differences between the respective subgroups of rowers (p ≥ 0.32). Our systematic review with meta-analysis indicated that ST is an effective means for improving lower limb maximal strength and sport-specific performance in rowers. However, ST-induced effects are neither modulated by ST type nor rowers' expertise level.

ABBREVIATIONS

CON: control group; ICC: intraclass correlation coefficient; CRE: cardiorespiratory endurance; F: female; IG: intervention group; INT: intervention group; M: male; Sets: number of sets per exercise; SMD: standardized mean differences; SMD_wm: weighted mean SMD; ST: strength training; RCT: randomized controlled trial; Reps: repetitions; RM: repetition maximum; TF: training frequency (times per week); TI: training intensity (eg., % of 1 repetition maximum); TP: training periods (weeks).

Comparison of isokinetic knee torque and bioelectrical activity for hamstrings, quadriceps and erector spinae muscles in elite rowers

In sweep rowers, the lower extremities muscle strength translates into the driving force of the boat. Therefore, isokinetic assessment of muscle torque is used by coaches as an indicator of the level of athletes' preparation for competitions. A total of 22 elite sweep rowers performed an isokinetic test of knee joint flexors and extensors, and a test on an asymmetric ergometer with the electromyography measures. Significantly higher quadriceps peak torque was shown during the beginning than the end of the preparatory period (p < 0.05). However, there was no significant knee peak torque difference between the lower extremities (p = 0.398). In the case of the electromyography test of quadriceps, hamstrings and lumbar erector spinae, analysis demonstrated significant bioelectrical activity differences between the sides (p < 0.05). Lower values of quadriceps peak torque at the end of the preparatory period may result from a decrease in the number of power training units during the entire preparatory period. A similar muscle strength between both lower extremities seems to be the correct result in the context of injury prevention. In turn, significant bioelectrical activity differences between the sides possibly are associated with the asymmetric movement pattern in sweep rowers.

Use of Loaded Conditioning Activities to Potentiate Middle- and Long-Distance Performance: A Narrative Review and Practical Applications

Blagrove, RC, Howatson, G, and Hayes, PR. Use of loaded conditioning activities to potentiate middle- and long-distance performance: a narrative review and practical applications. J Strength Cond Res 33(8): 2288-2297, 2019-The warm-up is an integral component of a middle- and long-distance athlete's preperformance routine. The use of a loaded conditioning activity (LCA), which elicits a postactivation potentiation (PAP) response to acutely enhance explosive power performance, is well researched. A similar approach incorporated into the warm-up of a middle- or long-distance athlete potentially provides a novel strategy to augment performance. Mechanisms that underpin a PAP response, relating to acute adjustments within the neuromuscular system, should theoretically improve middle- and long-distance performance through improvements in submaximal force-generating ability. Attempts to enhance middle- and long-distance-related outcomes using an LCA have been used in several recent studies. Results suggest that benefits to performance may exist in well-trained middle- and long-distance athletes by including high-intensity resistance training (1-5 repetition maximum) or adding load to the sport skill itself during the latter part of warm-ups. Early stages of performance seem to benefit most, and it is likely that recovery (5-10 minutes) also plays an important role after an LCA. Future research should consider how priming activity, designed to enhance the VO2 kinetic response, and an LCA may interact to affect performance, and how different LCAs might benefit various modes and durations of middle- and long-distance exercises.

Effects of Strength Training on Olympic Time-Based Sport Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effect of strength training on Olympic time-based sports (OTBS) time-trial performance and provide an estimate of the impact of type of strength training, age, training status, and training duration on OTBS time-trial performance.

METHODS

A search on 3 electronic databases was conducted. The analysis comprised 32 effects in 28 studies. Posttest time-trial performance of intervention and control group from each study was used to estimate the standardized magnitude of impact of strength training on OTBS time-trial performance.

RESULTS

Strength training had a moderate positive effect on OTBS time-trial performance (effect size = 0.59, P < .01). Subgroup meta-analysis showed that heavy weight training (effect size = 0.30, P = .01) produced a significant effect, whereas other modes did not induce significant effects. Training status as factorial covariate was significant for well-trained athletes (effect size = 0.62, P = .04), but not for other training levels. Meta-regression analysis yielded nonsignificant relationship with age of the participants recruited (β = -0.04; 95% confidence interval, -0.08 to 0.004; P = .07) and training duration (β = -0.05; 95% confidence interval, -0.11 to 0.02; P = .15) as continuous covariates.

CONCLUSION

Heavy weight training is an effective method for improving OTBS time-trial performance. Strength training has greatest impact on well-trained athletes regardless of age and training duration.

Physical performance indicators in traditional rowing championships

BACKGROUND

Traditional rowing is a very popular discipline practiced worldwide through sliding and fixed seat modalities with little scientific evidence. The aim of this study is to analyze high and low-performance rowers' profile of traditional rowing modalities in order to establish performance reference values.

METHODS

One hundred and fifteen male rowers were split into high and low performance groups, competing in the Spanish National Championships, volunteered to participate. Anthropometric measurements, body composition, and strength and power of lower extremities were evaluated by a jump height protocol.

RESULTS

In the high-performance group, sliding seat rowers were characterized by longer lower extremities (97.5±3.5 cm), whereas fixed seat rowers resulted in higher countermovement jump values (36.8±5.0 cm). Also, sliding seat rowers showed a resistance index to fast strength significantly higher (0.8±0.1) than fixed seat rowers (0.8±0.0). On the other hand, group comparison within modality indicated that high-performance rowers of both modalities were significantly taller than lower performance rowers (184.3±6.8 and 181.2±4.9 cm vs. 179.3±6.4 and 177.9±5.9 cm for sliding and fixed seat rowers, respectively). Furthermore, leg length (97.5±3.5 cm) and resistance index to fast strength (0.8±0.1) for sliding seat modality, and arm span (187.3±5.7 cm), trunk length (87.4±3.7 cm) and repeat jump height (28.6±4.2 cm) for fixed seat modality were found as performance factors in traditional rowing.

CONCLUSIONS

This study facilitates talent detection and selection of athletes to form competitive traditional rowing teams based on measurable physical characteristics.

Examining Arm Vascular Function and Blood Flow Regulation in Row-trained Males

Vascular function and blood flow responses to upper limb exercise are differentially altered in response to different exercise training modalities. Rowing is a unique exercise modality that incorporates the upper limbs and can significantly augment upper limb endurance, strength, and power capacity.

PURPOSE

This study sought to determine whether vascular function and blood flow regulation during handgrip exercise are altered in row-trained males.

METHODS

Nine young row-trained males (ROW, 20 ± 1 yr; V˙O2peak = 51 ± 2 mL·kg·min) and 14 recreationally active male controls (C: 22 ± 1 yr; V˙O2peak = 37 ± 2 mL·kg·min) were recruited for this study. Subjects performed multiple bouts of progressive rhythmic handgrip exercise. Brachial artery (BA) diameter, blood flow, shear rate, and mean arterial pressure were measured at rest and during the last minute of each exercise workload.

RESULTS

Resting values for BA diameter, blood flow, shear rate, and mean arterial pressure were not different between groups. During handgrip exercise, the ROW group reported significantly lower BA blood flow (ROW vs C: 4 kg [146 ± 21 vs 243 ± 13 mL·min], 8 kg [248 ± 29 vs 375 ± 17 mL·min], 12 kg [352 ± 43 vs 490 ± 22 mL·min]) across all workloads when compared with controls. The examination of BA dilation, when controlled for the shear rate stimulus and evaluated across all workloads, was revealed to be significantly greater in ROW group versus controls.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed that vascular function and blood flow regulation were significantly different in row-trained males when compared with untrained controls evidenced by greater shear-induced BA dilation and lower arm blood flow during progressive handgrip exercise.

Methodological Considerations on the Relationship Between the 1,500-m Rowing Ergometer Performance and Vertical Jump in National-Level Adolescent Rowers

Maciejewski, H, Rahmani, A, Chorin, F, Lardy, J, Samozino, P, and Ratel, S. Methodological considerations on the relationship between the 1,500-m rowing ergometer performance and vertical jump in national-level adolescent rowers. J Strength Cond Res 33(11): 3000-3007, 2019-The purpose of this study was to investigate whether 3 different approaches for evaluating squat jump performance were correlated with rowing ergometer performance in elite adolescent rowers. Fourteen young male competitive rowers (15.3 ± 0.6 years), who took part in the French rowing national championships, performed a 1,500-m all-out rowing ergometer performance (P1500) and a squat jump (SJ) test. The performance in SJ was determined by calculating the jump height (HSJ in cm), a jump index (ISJ = HSJ·body mass·gravity, in J), and the mean power output (PSJ in W) from the Samozino et al.'s method. Furthermore, allometric modeling procedures were used to consider the importance of body mass (BM) in the relationships between P1500 and jump scores. P1500 was significantly correlated with HSJ (r = 0.29, p ≤ 0.05), ISJ (r = 0.72, p < 0.0001), and PSJ (r = 0.86, p < 0.0001). Furthermore, BM explained at least 96% of the relationships between SJ and rowing performances. However, the similarity between both allometric exponents for PSJ and P1500 (1.15 and 1.04, respectively) indicates that BM could influence jump and rowing ergometer performances at the same rate, and that PSJ could be the best correlate of P1500. Therefore, the calculation of power seems to be more relevant than HSJ and ISJ to (a) evaluate jump performance and (b) infer the capacity of adolescent rowers to perform 1,500-m all-out rowing ergometer performance, irrespective of their body mass. This could help coaches to improve their training program and potentially identify talented young rowers.

Muscle morphology of the vastus lateralis is strongly related to ergometer performance, sprint capacity and endurance capacity in Olympic rowers

Rowers need to combine high sprint and endurance capacities. Muscle morphology largely explains muscle power generating capacity, however, little is known on how muscle morphology relates to rowing performance measures. The aim was to determine how muscle morphology of the vastus lateralis relates to rowing ergometer performance, sprint and endurance capacity of Olympic rowers. Eighteen rowers (12♂, 6♀, who competed at 2016 Olympics) performed an incremental rowing test to obtain maximal oxygen consumption, reflecting endurance capacity. Sprint capacity was assessed by Wingate cycling peak power. M. vastus lateralis morphology (volume, physiological cross-sectional area, fascicle length and pennation angle) was derived from 3-dimensional ultrasound imaging. Thirteen rowers (7♂, 6♀) completed a 2000-m rowing ergometer time trial. Muscle volume largely explained variance in 2000-m rowing performance (R² = 0.85), maximal oxygen consumption (R² = 0.65), and Wingate peak power (R² = 0.82). When normalized for differences in body size, maximal oxygen consumption and Wingate peak power were negatively related in males (r = -0.94). Fascicle length, not physiological cross-sectional area, attributed to normalized peak power. In conclusion, vastus lateralis volume largely explains variance in rowing ergometer performance, sprint and endurance capacity. For a high normalized sprint capacity, athletes may benefit from long fascicles rather than a large physiological cross-sectional area.

The Effect of Concurrent Plyometric Training Versus Submaximal Aerobic Cycling on Rowing Economy, Peak Power, and Performance in Male High School Rowers

BACKGROUND

Plyometric training has been shown to increase muscle power, running economy, and performance in athletes. Despite its use by rowing coaches, it is unknown whether plyometrics might improve rowing economy or performance. The purpose was to determine if plyometric training, in conjunction with training on the water, would lead to improved rowing economy and performance.

METHODS

Eighteen male high school rowers were assigned to perform 4 weeks of either plyometric training (PLYO, n = 9) or steady-state cycling below ventilatory threshold (endurance, E, n = 9), for 30 min prior to practice on the water (matched for training volume) 3 days per week. Rowing performance was assessed through a 500-m rowing time trial (TT) and peak rowing power (RP), while rowing economy (RE) was assessed by measuring the oxygen cost over four work rates (90, 120, 150, and 180 W).

RESULTS

Rowing economy was improved in both PLYO and E (p < 0.05). The 500-m TT performance improved significantly for PLYO (from 99.8 ± 9 s to 94.6 ± 2 s, p < 0.05) but not for E (from 98.8 ± 6 s to 98.7 ± 5 s, p > 0.05). Finally, RP was moderately higher in the PLYO group post-training (E 569 ± 75 W, PLYO 629 ± 51 W, ES = 0.66) CONCLUSIONS: In a season when the athletes performed no rowing sprint training, 4 weeks of plyometric training improved the 500-m rowing performance and moderately improved peak power. This increase in performance may have been mediated by moderate improvements in rowing power, but not economy, and warrants further investigation.

The Role of Trunk Muscle Strength for Physical Fitness and Athletic Performance in Trained Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The importance of trunk muscle strength (TMS) for physical fitness and athletic performance has been demonstrated by studies reporting significant correlations between those capacities. However, evidence-based knowledge regarding the magnitude of correlations between TMS and proxies of physical fitness and athletic performance as well as potential effects of core strength training (CST) on TMS, physical fitness and athletic performance variables is currently lacking for trained individuals.

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this systematic review and meta-analysis were to quantify associations between variables of TMS, physical fitness and athletic performance and effects of CST on these measures in healthy trained individuals.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus were systematically screened from January 1984 to March 2015.

STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Studies were included that investigated healthy trained individuals aged 16-44 years and tested at least one measure of TMS, muscle strength, muscle power, balance, and/or athletic performance.

STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS

Z-transformed Pearson's correlation coefficients between measures of TMS and physical performance were aggregated and back-transformed to r values. Further, to quantify the effects of CST, weighted standardized mean differences (SMDs) of TMS and physical performance were calculated using random effects models. The methodological quality of CST studies was assessed by the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale.

RESULTS

Small-sized relationships of TMS with physical performance measures (-0.05 ≤ r ≤ 0.18) were found in 15 correlation studies. Sixteen intervention studies revealed large effects of CST on measures of TMS (SMD = 1.07) but small-to-medium-sized effects on proxies of physical performance (0 ≤ SMD ≤ 0.71) compared with no training or regular training only. The methodological quality of CST studies was low (median PEDro score = 4).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that TMS plays only a minor role for physical fitness and athletic performance in trained individuals. In fact, CST appears to be an effective means to increase TMS and was associated with only limited gains in physical fitness and athletic performance measures when compared with no or only regular training.

Peak Power Output Test on a Rowing Ergometer: A Methodological Study

We aimed to examine the reliability and validity of the peak power output test on a rowing ergometer (Concept II Model D Inc.) and to establish the "optimal resistance" at which this peak power output was observed in 87 participants with varying levels of physical activity and rowing expertise: 15 male and 12 female physically inactive students (age: 21 ± 2 years), 16 male and 20 female physically active students (age: 23 ± 2 years), and 15 male and 9 female trained rowers (age: 19 ± 2 years). The participants performed countermovement jump (CMJ) test on a force plate, followed by 3 maximal-effort rowing trials using the lowest, medium, and the highest adjustable resistance settings (i.e., "1", "5," and "10" on the resistance control dial on the ergometer) in randomized order. The test proved to be reliable (coefficients of variation: 2.6-6.5%; intraclass correlation coefficients: 0.87-0.98). The correlation coefficients between CMJ peak power and rowing peak power (both in watts per kilogram) were fairly consistent across all 3 groups of participants and resistance levels, ranging between r = 0.70 and r = 0.78. Finally, the highest power output was observed at the highest resistance setting in 2 nonathletic groups (p < 0.01), whereas rowers seem to produce the highest power output at the moderate-resistance setting. We conclude that the power output test on a Concept II rowing ergometer may serve as a reliable and valid tool for assessing whole-body peak power output in untrained individuals and rowing athletes.

Laboratory or field tests for evaluating firefighters' work capacity?

Muscle strength is important for firefighters work capacity. Laboratory tests used for measurements of muscle strength, however, are complicated, expensive and time consuming. The aims of the present study were to investigate correlations between physical capacity within commonly occurring and physically demanding firefighting work tasks and both laboratory and field tests in full time (N = 8) and part-time (N = 10) male firefighters and civilian men (N = 8) and women (N = 12), and also to give recommendations as to which field tests might be useful for evaluating firefighters' physical work capacity. Laboratory tests of isokinetic maximal (IM) and endurance (IE) muscle power and dynamic balance, field tests including maximal and endurance muscle performance, and simulated firefighting work tasks were performed. Correlations with work capacity were analyzed with Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (rs). The highest significant (p<0.01) correlations with laboratory and field tests were for Cutting: IE trunk extension (rs = 0.72) and maximal hand grip strength (rs = 0.67), for Stairs: IE shoulder flexion (rs = -0.81) and barbell shoulder press (rs = -0.77), for Pulling: IE shoulder extension (rs = -0.82) and bench press (rs = -0.85), for Demolition: IE knee extension (rs = 0.75) and bench press (rs = 0.83), for Rescue: IE shoulder flexion (rs = -0.83) and bench press (rs = -0.82), and for the Terrain work task: IE trunk flexion (rs = -0.58) and upright barbell row (rs = -0.70). In conclusion, field tests may be used instead of laboratory tests. Maximal hand grip strength, bench press, chin ups, dips, upright barbell row, standing broad jump, and barbell shoulder press were strongly correlated (rs≥0.7) with work capacity and are therefore recommended for evaluating firefighters work capacity.

Anthropometry, strength and benchmarks for development: a basis for junior rowers' selection?

The aims of this study were to establish whether anthropometry, muscle strength and endurance accounted for differences between junior and senior elite rowing ergometer performance, and to determine annual development rates for juniors associated with training. Twenty-six junior (8 females, age 18.0 ± 0.3 years and 18 males, age 17.9 ± 0.2 years) and 30 senior (12 females, 23.7 ± 3.0 years and 18 males, 24.0 ± 3.9 years) heavyweight rowers, were assessed anthropometrically, performed a 2000-m ergometer time-trial, and completed various muscular strength and endurance tests. There were no anthropometrical differences between males; however after controlling for body-fat and standing-height, senior females were of greater body-mass (70.5 ± 4.6 kg and 77.2 ± 5.9 kg, P = 0.01) and sitting-height (89.8 ± 2.2 cm and 92.2 ± 6.1 cm, P = 0.04) than juniors. Moderate to very large standardised differences in all strength and endurance tests were observed between juniors and seniors (effect size (ES) range 0.9-1.9). Greater development rates (5.0% to 6.0%) and adjusted 2000-m performance was associated with upper-body strength (males) and endurance (females). In conclusion, after identification of desirable anthropometry, the 2000-m ergometer potential of juniors may be accounted for by upper-body strength and endurance.