The relationship between technology and functionality of rural water points: evidence from Tanzania

An assessment tool to improve rural groundwater access: Integrating hydrogeological modelling with socio-technical factors

Sustainable exploitation of groundwater resources for drinking water provision in rural communities in sub-Sahara Africa remains elusive due to the limited knowledge of these hydrogeological systems. This is exacerbated by poor maintenance of existing infrastructure, limited technical capacity, the socio-economic characteristics of the area and poor governance. Assessing the likelihood of a given individual user experiencing water shortage calls for an interdisciplinary approach. After a preliminary multifactorial analysis incorporating a range of variables from technical to societal, it was found that most of the overall risk of water shortage for an individual household could be attributed to three factors; (1) Proximity, specified as the distance to the closest supply well (determined by geographical parameters), (2) Availability of good quality water in the wells (determined by hydrogeological understanding and modelling), and (3) Sustainability (determined by socio-technical and socio-economic parameters). In the latter case, a distinction was made between hardware functionality- the water point's performance considering a sufficient yield and reliability through time- and software functionality, based on a combination of socioeconomic data from surveys and analysed using Multiple Factor Analysis (MFA). All three factors are eventually mapped onto indicators in the range of [0-1] and then represented in a Geographical Information System based on the partition of the entire spatial domain (e.g., counties, villages, and neighbourhoods). The three indicators are then combined in a final index based on the product of the three factors, thus mapping time-dependent overall risk and allowing the assessment of temporal risk-evolution scenarios. The methodology is applied to Kwale County, Kenya, where community handpumps and groundwater points comprise the main water supply system. Apart from mapping the present situation, the methodology is finally used to assess the impact of future climate scenarios.

Contribution of physical factors to handpump borehole functionality in Africa

Handpumps are the main water supply for rural communities across sub-Saharan Africa. However, studies show that >25 % of handpumps are non-functional at any time. We present results from a systematic field study of handpump borehole functionality. The study was designed to investigate the contribution of physical factors to functionality outcomes, including; hydrogeology, borehole configuration, and handpump components. To achieve this, we deconstructed and examined 145 handpump boreholes in Ethiopia, Uganda and Malawi. Pumping tests showed that 19 % of boreholes were located in aquifers with transmissivity below the minimum required to sustain a handpump. Water levels, measured during the dry season, had a complex relationship with borehole configuration and transmissivity. The handpump cylinder was <10 m below the water table at 38 % of sites, which increases the risk of the handpump running dry during intensive use and/or in areas of low transmissivity. The water column was <20 m at 23 % of sites and screens were <10 m long at 29 % of sites and often sub-optimally positioned in the borehole. Borehole depth had no clear relationship with functionality. Using multinomial regression and four functionality categories (functional; unreliable; low yield; unreliable and low yield) as dependant variables, we found that transmissivity is a significant risk factor for the classification of handpump boreholes as low yield. The configuration of the borehole (e.g. cylinder position, screen/casing configuration and water column) is a statistically significant risk factor for the classification of handpump boreholes as unreliable. Handpump components were in poor overall condition but rising main pipes were a particular problem with 53 % of galvanised pipes corroded and 82 % of uPVC pipes damaged, with implications for handpump performance. Our study highlights the importance of; understanding aquifer properties, investing in borehole siting, construction (including supervision) and commissioning, and improving the quality of components and maintenance of handpumps.

Factors Influencing Water System Functionality in Nigeria and Tanzania: A Regression and Bayesian Network Analysis

Sufficient, safe, and continuously available water services are important for human development and health yet many water systems in low- and middle-income countries are nonfunctional. Monitoring data were analyzed using regression and Bayesian networks (BNs) to explore factors influencing the functionality of 82 503 water systems in Nigeria and Tanzania. Functionality varied by system type. In Tanzania, Nira handpumps were more functional than Afridev and India Mark II handpumps. Higher functionality was associated with fee collection in Nigeria. In Tanzania, functionality was higher if fees were collected monthly rather than in response to system breakdown. Systems in Nigeria were more likely to be functional if they were used for both human and livestock consumption. In Tanzania, systems managed by private operators were more functional than community-managed systems. The BNs found strong dependencies between functionality and system type and administrative unit (e.g., district). The BNs predicted functionality increased from 68% to 89% in Nigeria and from 53% to 68% in Tanzania when best observed conditions were in place. Improvements to water system monitoring and analysis of monitoring data with different modeling techniques may be useful for identifying water service improvement opportunities and informing evidence-based decision-making for better management, policy, programming, and practice.

Improved monitoring framework for local planning in the water, sanitation and hygiene sector: From data to decision-making

Today, a vast proportion of people still lack a simple pit latrine and a source of safe drinking water. To help end this appalling state of affairs, there is a pressing need to provide policymakers with evidences which may be the basis of effective planning, targeting and prioritization. Two major challenges often hinder this process: i) lack of reliable data to identify which areas are most in need; and ii) inadequate instruments for decision-making support. In tackling previous shortcomings, this paper proposes a monitoring framework to compile, analyze, interpret and disseminate water, sanitation and hygiene information. In an era of decentralization, where decision-making moves to local governments, we apply such framework at the local level. The ultimate goal is to develop appropriate tools for decentralized planning support. To this end, the study first implements a methodology for primary data collection, which combines the household and the waterpoint as information sources. In doing so, we provide a complete picture of the context in which domestic WASH services are delivered. Second, the collected data are analyzed to underline the emerging development challenges. The use of simple planning indicators serves as the basis to i) reveal which areas require policy attention, and to ii) identify the neediest. Third, a classification process is proposed to prioritize among various populations. Three different case studies from East and Southern African countries are presented. Results indicate that accurate and comprehensive data, if adequately exploited through simple instruments, may be the basis of effective targeting and prioritization, which are central to sector planning. The application of the proposed framework in the real world, however, is to a certain extent elusive; and we point out to conclude two specific challenges that remain unaddressed, namely the upgrade of existing decision-making processes to enhance transparency and inclusiveness, and the development of data updating mechanisms.