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Prakash A, Dion E, Banerjee TD, Monteiro A. The molecular basis of scale development highlighted by a single-cell atlas of Bicyclus anynana butterfly pupal forewings. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114147. [PMID: 38662541 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Butterfly wings display a diversity of cell types, including large polyploid scale cells, yet the molecular basis of such diversity is poorly understood. To explore scale cell diversity at a transcriptomic level, we employ single-cell RNA sequencing of ∼5,200 large cells (>6 μm) from 22.5- to 25-h male pupal forewings of the butterfly Bicyclus anynana. Using unsupervised clustering, followed by in situ hybridization, immunofluorescence, and CRISPR-Cas9 editing of candidate genes, we annotate various cell types on the wing. We identify genes marking non-innervated scale cells, pheromone-producing glandular cells, and innervated sensory cell types. We show that senseless, a zinc-finger transcription factor, and HR38, a hormone receptor, determine the identity, size, and color of different scale cell types and are important regulators of scale cell differentiation. This dataset and the identification of various wing cell-type markers provide a foundation to compare and explore scale cell-type diversification across arthropod species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupama Prakash
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Emilie Dion
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Tirtha Das Banerjee
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
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2
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Presser A, Freund O, Hassapelis T, Hunter G. Scabrous is distributed via signaling filopodia to modulate Notch response during bristle patterning in Drosophila. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0291409. [PMID: 37729137 PMCID: PMC10511103 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0291409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
During development, cells in tissues must be patterned correctly in order to support tissue function and shape. The sensory bristles of the peripheral nervous system on the thorax of Drosophila melanogaster self-organizes from a unpatterned epithelial tissue to a regular spot pattern during pupal stages. Wild type patterning requires Notch-mediated lateral inhibition. Scabrous is a protein that can bind to and modify Notch receptor activity. Scabrous can be secreted, but it is also known to be localized to basal signaling filopodia, or cytonemes, that play a role in long-range Notch signaling. Here we show that Scabrous is primarily distributed basally, within the range of signaling filopodia extension. We show that filamentous actin dynamics are required for the distribution of Scabrous protein during sensory bristle patterning stages. We show that the Notch response of epithelial cells is sensitive to the level of Scabrous protein being expressed by the sensory bristle precursor cell. Our findings at the cell-level suggest a model for how epithelial cells engaged in lateral inhibition at a distance are sensitive local levels of Scabrous protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Presser
- Department of Biology, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York, United States of America
| | - Olivia Freund
- Department of Biology, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York, United States of America
| | - Theodora Hassapelis
- Department of Biology, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York, United States of America
| | - Ginger Hunter
- Department of Biology, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York, United States of America
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3
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He Q, Hou T, Fan X, Wang S, Wang Y, Chen S. Juvenile hormone suppresses sensory organ precursor determination to block Drosophila adult abdomen morphogenesis. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 157:103957. [PMID: 37192726 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2023.103957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Juvenile hormone (JH) has a classic "status quo" action at both the pupal and adult molts when administrated exogenously. In Drosophila, treatment with JH at pupariation inhibits the formation of abdominal bristles, which are derived from the histoblasts. However, the mechanism via which JH exerts this effect remains poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed the effect of JH on histoblast proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Our results indicated that whereas the proliferation and migration of histoblasts remained unaffected following treatment with a JH mimic (JHM), their differentiation, particularly the specification of sensor organ precursor (SOP) cells, was inhibited. This effect was attributable to downregulated proneural genes achaete (ac) and Scute (sc) expression levels, which prevented the specification of SOP cells in proneural clusters. Moreover, Kr-h1 was found to mediate this effect of JHM. Histoblast-specific overexpression or knockdown of Kr-h1, respectively mimicked or attenuated the effects exerted by JHM on abdominal bristle formation, SOP determination, and transcriptional regulation of ac and sc. These results indicated that the defective SOP determination was responsible for the inhibition of abdominal bristle formation by JHM, which, in turn, was mainly mediated via the transducing action of Kr-h1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianyu He
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, China.
| | - Tianlan Hou
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, China
| | - Xiaochun Fan
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, China
| | - Shunxin Wang
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, China
| | - Yanhong Wang
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, China
| | - Shanshan Chen
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, China
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4
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Furman DP, Bukharina TA. Genetic Regulation of Morphogenesis of Drosophila melanogaster Mechanoreceptors. Russ J Dev Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062360422040038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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5
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Dean DM, Deitcher DL, Paster CO, Xu M, Loehlin DW. "A fly appeared": sable, a classic Drosophila mutation, maps to Yippee, a gene affecting body color, wings, and bristles. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2022; 12:jkac058. [PMID: 35266526 PMCID: PMC9073688 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkac058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Insect body color is an easily assessed and visually engaging trait that is informative on a broad range of topics including speciation, biomaterial science, and ecdysis. Mutants of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster have been an integral part of body color research for more than a century. As a result of this long tenure, backlogs of body color mutations have remained unmapped to their genes, all while their strains have been dutifully maintained, used for recombination mapping, and part of genetics education. Stemming from a lesson plan in our undergraduate genetics class, we have mapped sable1, a dark body mutation originally described by Morgan and Bridges, to Yippee, a gene encoding a predicted member of the E3 ubiquitin ligase complex. Deficiency/duplication mapping, genetic rescue, DNA and cDNA sequencing, RT-qPCR, and 2 new CRISPR alleles indicated that sable1 is a hypomorphic Yippee mutation due to an mdg4 element insertion in the Yippee 5'-UTR. Further analysis revealed additional Yippee mutant phenotypes including curved wings, ectopic/missing bristles, delayed development, and failed adult emergence. RNAi of Yippee in the ectoderm phenocopied sable body color and most other Yippee phenotypes. Although Yippee remains functionally uncharacterized, the results presented here suggest possible connections between melanin biosynthesis, copper homeostasis, and Notch/Delta signaling; in addition, they provide insight into past studies of sable cell nonautonomy and of the genetic modifier suppressor of sable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek M Dean
- Department of Biology, Williams College, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - David L Deitcher
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Caleigh O Paster
- Department of Biology, Williams College, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Manting Xu
- Department of Biology, Williams College, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - David W Loehlin
- Department of Biology, Williams College, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
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6
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Luecke D, Rice G, Kopp A. Sex-specific evolution of a Drosophila sensory system via interacting cis- and trans-regulatory changes. Evol Dev 2022; 24:37-60. [PMID: 35239254 PMCID: PMC9179014 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of gene expression via cis-regulatory changes is well established as a major driver of phenotypic evolution. However, relatively little is known about the influence of enhancer architecture and intergenic interactions on regulatory evolution. We address this question by examining chemosensory system evolution in Drosophila. Drosophila prolongata males show a massively increased number of chemosensory bristles compared to females and males of sibling species. This increase is driven by sex-specific transformation of ancestrally mechanosensory organs. Consistent with this phenotype, the Pox neuro transcription factor (Poxn), which specifies chemosensory bristle identity, shows expanded expression in D. prolongata males. Poxn expression is controlled by nonadditive interactions among widely dispersed enhancers. Although some D. prolongata Poxn enhancers show increased activity, the additive component of this increase is slight, suggesting that most changes in Poxn expression are due to epistatic interactions between Poxn enhancers and trans-regulatory factors. Indeed, the expansion of D. prolongata Poxn enhancer activity is only observed in cells that express doublesex (dsx), the gene that controls sexual differentiation in Drosophila and also shows increased expression in D. prolongata males due to cis-regulatory changes. Although expanded dsx expression may contribute to increased activity of D. prolongata Poxn enhancers, this interaction is not sufficient to explain the full expansion of Poxn expression, suggesting that cis-trans interactions between Poxn, dsx, and additional unknown genes are necessary to produce the derived D. prolongata phenotype. Overall, our results demonstrate the importance of epistatic gene interactions for evolution, particularly when pivotal genes have complex regulatory architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Luecke
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California – Davis,Current Address: Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University
| | - Gavin Rice
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California – Davis,Current Address: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh
| | - Artyom Kopp
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California – Davis
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7
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Nandakumar S, Rozich E, Buttitta L. Cell Cycle Re-entry in the Nervous System: From Polyploidy to Neurodegeneration. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:698661. [PMID: 34249947 PMCID: PMC8264763 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.698661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Terminally differentiated cells of the nervous system have long been considered to be in a stable non-cycling state and are often considered to be permanently in G0. Exit from the cell cycle during development is often coincident with the differentiation of neurons, and is critical for neuronal function. But what happens in long lived postmitotic tissues that accumulate cell damage or suffer cell loss during aging? In other contexts, cells that are normally non-dividing or postmitotic can or re-enter the cell cycle and begin replicating their DNA to facilitate cellular growth in response to cell loss. This leads to a state called polyploidy, where cells contain multiple copies of the genome. A growing body of literature from several vertebrate and invertebrate model organisms has shown that polyploidy in the nervous system may be more common than previously appreciated and occurs under normal physiological conditions. Moreover, it has been found that neuronal polyploidization can play a protective role when cells are challenged with DNA damage or oxidative stress. By contrast, work over the last two and a half decades has discovered a link between cell-cycle reentry in neurons and several neurodegenerative conditions. In this context, neuronal cell cycle re-entry is widely considered to be aberrant and deleterious to neuronal health. In this review, we highlight historical and emerging reports of polyploidy in the nervous systems of various vertebrate and invertebrate organisms. We discuss the potential functions of polyploidization in the nervous system, particularly in the context of long-lived cells and age-associated polyploidization. Finally, we attempt to reconcile the seemingly disparate associations of neuronal polyploidy with both neurodegeneration and neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Laura Buttitta
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
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8
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The color pattern inducing gene wingless is expressed in specific cell types of campaniform sensilla of a polka-dotted fruit fly, Drosophila guttifera. Dev Genes Evol 2021; 231:85-93. [PMID: 33774724 DOI: 10.1007/s00427-021-00674-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A polka-dotted fruit fly, Drosophila guttifera, has a unique pigmentation pattern on its wings and is used as a model for evo-devo studies exploring the mechanism of evolutionary gain of novel traits. In this species, a morphogen-encoding gene, wingless, is expressed in species-specific positions and induces a unique pigmentation pattern. To produce some of the pigmentation spots on wing veins, wingless is thought to be expressed in developing campaniform sensillum cells, but it was unknown which of the four cell types there express(es) wingless. Here we show that two of the cell types, dome cells and socket cells, express wingless, as indicated by in situ hybridization together with immunohistochemistry. This is a unique case in which non-neuronal SOP (sensory organ precursor) progeny cells produce Wingless as an inducer of pigmentation pattern formation. Our finding opens a path to clarifying the mechanism of evolutionary gain of a unique wingless expression pattern by analyzing gene regulation in dome cells and socket cells.
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Phosphatidic acid increases Notch signalling by affecting Sanpodo trafficking during Drosophila sensory organ development. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21731. [PMID: 33303974 PMCID: PMC7729928 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78831-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Organ cell diversity depends on binary cell-fate decisions mediated by the Notch signalling pathway during development and tissue homeostasis. A clear example is the series of binary cell-fate decisions that take place during asymmetric cell divisions that give rise to the sensory organs of Drosophila melanogaster. The regulated trafficking of Sanpodo, a transmembrane protein that potentiates receptor activity, plays a pivotal role in this process. Membrane lipids can regulate many signalling pathways by affecting receptor and ligand trafficking. It remains unknown, however, whether phosphatidic acid regulates Notch-mediated binary cell-fate decisions during asymmetric cell divisions, and what are the cellular mechanisms involved. Here we show that increased phosphatidic acid derived from Phospholipase D leads to defects in binary cell-fate decisions that are compatible with ectopic Notch activation in precursor cells, where it is normally inactive. Null mutants of numb or the α-subunit of Adaptor Protein complex-2 enhance dominantly this phenotype while removing a copy of Notch or sanpodo suppresses it. In vivo analyses show that Sanpodo localization decreases at acidic compartments, associated with increased internalization of Notch. We propose that Phospholipase D-derived phosphatidic acid promotes ectopic Notch signalling by increasing receptor endocytosis and inhibiting Sanpodo trafficking towards acidic endosomes.
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10
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Hehlert P, Zhang W, Göpfert MC. Drosophila Mechanosensory Transduction. Trends Neurosci 2020; 44:323-335. [PMID: 33257000 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2020.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mechanosensation in Drosophila relies on sensory neurons transducing mechanical stimuli into ionic currents. The molecular mechanisms of this transduction are in the process of being revealed. Transduction relies on mechanogated ion channels that are activated by membrane stretch or the tension of force-conveying tethers. NOMPC (no-mechanoreceptor potential C) and DmPiezo were put forward as bona fide mechanoelectrical transduction (MET) channels, providing insights into MET channel architecture and the structural basis of mechanogating. Various additional channels were implicated in Drosophila mechanosensory neuron functions, and parallels between fly and vertebrate mechanotransduction were delineated. Collectively, these advances put forward Drosophila mechanosensory neurons as cellular paradigms for mechanotransduction and mechanogated ion channel function in the context of proprio- and nociception as well as the detection of substrate vibrations, touch, gravity, and sound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Hehlert
- Department of Cellular Neurobiology, University of Göttingen, Julia-Lermontowa-Weg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Wei Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, 100084, China; Chinese Institute for Brain Research, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Martin C Göpfert
- Department of Cellular Neurobiology, University of Göttingen, Julia-Lermontowa-Weg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany; Collaborative Research Center 889, University of Göttingen, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; Multiscale Bioimaging Cluster of Excellence (MBExC), University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
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11
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Insulin-dependent Non-canonical Activation of Notch in Drosophila: A Story of Notch-Induced Muscle Stem Cell Proliferation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1227:131-144. [PMID: 32072503 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-36422-9_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Notch plays multiple roles both in development and in adult tissue homeostasis. Notch was first identified in Drosophila in which it has then been extensively studied. Among the flag-ship Notch functions we could mention its capacity to keep precursor and stem cells in a nondifferentiated state but also its ability to activate cell proliferation that in some contexts could led to cancer. In general, both these functions involve, canonical, ligand-dependent Notch activation. However, a ligand-independent Notch activation has also been described in a few cellular contexts. Here, we focus on one of such contexts, Drosophila muscle stem cells, called AMPs, and discuss how insulin-dependent noncanonical activation of Notch pushes quiescent AMPs to proliferation.
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12
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Hunter GL, He L, Perrimon N, Charras G, Giniger E, Baum B. A role for actomyosin contractility in Notch signaling. BMC Biol 2019; 17:12. [PMID: 30744634 PMCID: PMC6369551 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-019-0625-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Notch-Delta signaling functions across a wide array of animal systems to break symmetry in a sheet of undifferentiated cells and generate cells with different fates, a process known as lateral inhibition. Unlike many other signaling systems, however, since both the ligand and receptor are transmembrane proteins, the activation of Notch by Delta depends strictly on cell-cell contact. Furthermore, the binding of the ligand to the receptor may not be sufficient to induce signaling, since recent work in cell culture suggests that ligand-induced Notch signaling also requires a mechanical pulling force. This tension exposes a cleavage site in Notch that, when cut, activates signaling. Although it is not known if mechanical tension contributes to signaling in vivo, others have suggested that this is how endocytosis of the receptor-ligand complex contributes to the cleavage and activation of Notch. In a similar way, since Notch-mediated lateral inhibition at a distance in the dorsal thorax of the pupal fly is mediated via actin-rich protrusions, it is possible that cytoskeletal forces generated by networks of filamentous actin and non-muscle myosin during cycles of protrusion extension and retraction also contribute to Notch signaling. Results To test this hypothesis, we carried out a detailed analysis of the role of myosin II-dependent tension in Notch signaling in the developing fly and in cell culture. Using dynamic fluorescence-based reporters of Notch, we found that myosin II is important for signaling in signal sending and receiving cells in both systems—as expected if myosin II-dependent tension across the Notch-Delta complex contributes to Notch activation. While myosin II was found to contribute most to signaling at a distance, it was also required for maximal signaling between adjacent cells that share lateral contacts and for signaling between cells in culture. Conclusions Together these results reveal a previously unappreciated role for non-muscle myosin II contractility in Notch signaling, providing further support for the idea that force contributes to the cleavage and activation of Notch in the context of ligand-dependent signaling, and a new paradigm for actomyosin-based mechanosensation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12915-019-0625-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginger L Hunter
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA. .,MRC-LMCB, University College London, London, WC1E6BT, UK. .,Institute for the Physics of Living Systems, University College London, London, WC1E6BT, UK. .,Present Address: Department of Biology, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, 13699, USA.
| | - Li He
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Norbert Perrimon
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Guillaume Charras
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, London, WC1E6BT, UK.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, WC1E6BT, UK
| | - Edward Giniger
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
| | - Buzz Baum
- MRC-LMCB, University College London, London, WC1E6BT, UK.,Institute for the Physics of Living Systems, University College London, London, WC1E6BT, UK
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Furman DP, Bukharina TV. The bristle pattern development in Drosophila melanogaster: the prepattern and achaete-scute genes. Vavilovskii Zhurnal Genet Selektsii 2019. [DOI: 10.18699/vj18.449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- D. P. Furman
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, SB RAS; Novosibirsk State University
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14
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Salazar JL, Yamamoto S. Integration of Drosophila and Human Genetics to Understand Notch Signaling Related Diseases. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1066:141-185. [PMID: 30030826 PMCID: PMC6233323 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-89512-3_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Notch signaling research dates back to more than one hundred years, beginning with the identification of the Notch mutant in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Since then, research on Notch and related genes in flies has laid the foundation of what we now know as the Notch signaling pathway. In the 1990s, basic biological and biochemical studies of Notch signaling components in mammalian systems, as well as identification of rare mutations in Notch signaling pathway genes in human patients with rare Mendelian diseases or cancer, increased the significance of this pathway in human biology and medicine. In the 21st century, Drosophila and other genetic model organisms continue to play a leading role in understanding basic Notch biology. Furthermore, these model organisms can be used in a translational manner to study underlying mechanisms of Notch-related human diseases and to investigate the function of novel disease associated genes and variants. In this chapter, we first briefly review the major contributions of Drosophila to Notch signaling research, discussing the similarities and differences between the fly and human pathways. Next, we introduce several biological contexts in Drosophila in which Notch signaling has been extensively characterized. Finally, we discuss a number of genetic diseases caused by mutations in genes in the Notch signaling pathway in humans and we expand on how Drosophila can be used to study rare genetic variants associated with these and novel disorders. By combining modern genomics and state-of-the art technologies, Drosophila research is continuing to reveal exciting biology that sheds light onto mechanisms of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose L Salazar
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine (BCM), Houston, TX, USA
| | - Shinya Yamamoto
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine (BCM), Houston, TX, USA.
- Program in Developmental Biology, BCM, Houston, TX, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, BCM, Houston, TX, USA.
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA.
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15
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Deshmukh R, Baral S, Gandhimathi A, Kuwalekar M, Kunte K. Mimicry in butterflies: co-option and a bag of magnificent developmental genetic tricks. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2017; 7. [PMID: 28913870 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2017] [Revised: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Butterfly wing patterns are key adaptations that are controlled by remarkable developmental and genetic mechanisms that facilitate rapid evolutionary change. With swift advancements in the fields of genomics and genetic manipulations, identifying the regulators of wing development and mimetic wing patterns has become feasible even in nonmodel organisms such as butterflies. Recent mapping and gene expression studies have identified single switch loci of major effects such as transcription factors and supergenes as the main drivers of adaptive evolution of mimetic and polymorphic butterfly wing patterns. We highlight several of these examples, with emphasis on doublesex, optix, WntA and other dynamic, yet essential, master regulators that control critical color variation and sex-specific traits. Co-option emerges as a predominant theme, where typically embryonic and other early-stage developmental genes and networks have been rewired to regulate polymorphic and sex-limited mimetic wing patterns in iconic butterfly adaptations. Drawing comparisons from our knowledge of wing development in Drosophila, we illustrate the functional space of genes that have been recruited to regulate butterfly wing patterns. We also propose a developmental pathway that potentially results in dorsoventral mismatch in butterfly wing patterns. Such dorsoventrally mismatched color patterns modulate signal components of butterfly wings that are used in intra- and inter-specific communication. Recent advances-fuelled by RNAi-mediated knockdowns and CRISPR/Cas9-based genomic edits-in the developmental genetics of butterfly wing patterns, and the underlying biological diversity and complexity of wing coloration, are pushing butterflies as an emerging model system in ecological genetics and evolutionary developmental biology. WIREs Dev Biol 2018, 7:e291. doi: 10.1002/wdev.291 This article is categorized under: Gene Expression and Transcriptional Hierarchies > Regulatory Mechanisms Comparative Development and Evolution > Regulation of Organ Diversity Comparative Development and Evolution > Evolutionary Novelties.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Saurav Baral
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bengaluru, India
| | - A Gandhimathi
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bengaluru, India
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16
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Olesnicky EC, Bono JM, Bell L, Schachtner LT, Lybecker MC. The RNA-binding protein caper is required for sensory neuron development in Drosophila melanogaster. Dev Dyn 2017; 246:610-624. [PMID: 28543982 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 04/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alternative splicing mediated by RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) is emerging as a fundamental mechanism for the regulation of gene expression. Alternative splicing has been shown to be a widespread phenomenon that facilitates the diversification of gene products in a tissue-specific manner. Although defects in alternative splicing are rooted in many neurological disorders, only a small fraction of splicing factors have been investigated in detail. RESULTS We find that the splicing factor Caper is required for the development of multiple different mechanosensory neuron subtypes at multiple life stages in Drosophila melanogaster. Disruption of Caper function causes defects in dendrite morphogenesis of larval dendrite arborization neurons and neuronal positioning of embryonic proprioceptors, as well as the development and maintenance of adult mechanosensory bristles. Additionally, we find that Caper dysfunction results in aberrant locomotor behavior in adult flies. Transcriptome-wide analyses further support a role for Caper in alternative isoform regulation of genes that function in neurogenesis. CONCLUSIONS Our results provide the first evidence for a fundamental and broad requirement for the highly conserved splicing factor Caper in the development and maintenance of the nervous system and provide a framework for future studies on the detailed mechanism of Caper-mediated RNA regulation. Developmental Dynamics 246:610-624, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia C Olesnicky
- Department of Biology, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado
| | - Jeremy M Bono
- Department of Biology, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado
| | - Laura Bell
- Department of Biology, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado
| | - Logan T Schachtner
- Department of Biology, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado
| | - Meghan C Lybecker
- Department of Biology, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado
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17
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Hunter GL, Hadjivasiliou Z, Bonin H, He L, Perrimon N, Charras G, Baum B. Coordinated control of Notch/Delta signalling and cell cycle progression drives lateral inhibition-mediated tissue patterning. Development 2016; 143:2305-10. [PMID: 27226324 PMCID: PMC4958321 DOI: 10.1242/dev.134213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Coordinating cell differentiation with cell growth and division is crucial for the successful development, homeostasis and regeneration of multicellular tissues. Here, we use bristle patterning in the fly notum as a model system to explore the regulatory and functional coupling of cell cycle progression and cell fate decision-making. The pattern of bristles and intervening epithelial cells (ECs) becomes established through Notch-mediated lateral inhibition during G2 phase of the cell cycle, as neighbouring cells physically interact with each other via lateral contacts and/or basal protrusions. Since Notch signalling controls cell division timing downstream of Cdc25, ECs in lateral contact with a Delta-expressing cell experience higher levels of Notch signalling and divide first, followed by more distant neighbours, and lastly Delta-expressing cells. Conversely, mitotic entry and cell division makes ECs refractory to lateral inhibition signalling, fixing their fate. Using a combination of experiments and computational modelling, we show that this reciprocal relationship between Notch signalling and cell cycle progression acts like a developmental clock, providing a delimited window of time during which cells decide their fate, ensuring efficient and orderly bristle patterning. Summary: In the fly notum, a reciprocal relationship between Notch signalling and cell cycle progression acts like a clock, providing a delimited window of time during which cells decide their fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginger L Hunter
- MRC-Laboratory for Molecular and Cell Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK Institute of Physics of Living Systems, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Zena Hadjivasiliou
- Centre for Mathematics, Physics, and Engineering in the Life Sciences and Experimental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Hope Bonin
- MRC-Laboratory for Molecular and Cell Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Li He
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Norbert Perrimon
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Guillaume Charras
- Institute of Physics of Living Systems, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Buzz Baum
- MRC-Laboratory for Molecular and Cell Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK Institute of Physics of Living Systems, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
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18
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Ayeni JO, Audibert A, Fichelson P, Srayko M, Gho M, Campbell SD. G2 phase arrest prevents bristle progenitor self-renewal and synchronizes cell division with cell fate differentiation. Development 2016; 143:1160-9. [PMID: 26893341 DOI: 10.1242/dev.134270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Developmentally regulated cell cycle arrest is a fundamental feature of neurogenesis, whose significance is poorly understood. During Drosophila sensory organ (SO) development, primary progenitor (pI) cells arrest in G2 phase for precisely defined periods. Upon re-entering the cell cycle in response to developmental signals, these G2-arrested precursor cells divide and generate specialized neuronal and non-neuronal cells. To study how G2 phase arrest affects SO lineage specification, we forced pI cells to divide prematurely. This produced SOs with normal neuronal lineages but supernumerary non-neuronal cell types because prematurely dividing pI cells generate a secondary pI cell that produces a complete SO and an external precursor cell that undergoes amplification divisions. pI cells are therefore able to undergo self-renewal before transit to a terminal mode of division. Regulation of G2 phase arrest thus serves a dual role in SO development: preventing progenitor self-renewal and synchronizing cell division with developmental signals. Cell cycle arrest in G2 phase temporally coordinates the precursor cell proliferation potential with terminal cell fate determination to ensure formation of organs with a normal set of sensory cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph O Ayeni
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9
| | - Agnès Audibert
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University of Paris 06, IBPS-UMR 7622, Laboratory of Developmental Biology, Paris 75005, France
| | - Pierre Fichelson
- CNRS, IBPS-UMR 7622, Laboratory of Developmental Biology, Paris 75005, France
| | - Martin Srayko
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9
| | - Michel Gho
- CNRS, IBPS-UMR 7622, Laboratory of Developmental Biology, Paris 75005, France
| | - Shelagh D Campbell
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9
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19
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Golubyatnikov VP, Bukharina TA, Furman DP. A model study of the morphogenesis of D. melanogaster mechanoreceptors: the central regulatory circuit. J Bioinform Comput Biol 2015; 13:1540006. [PMID: 25666652 DOI: 10.1142/s0219720015400065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Macrochaetes (large bristles) are sensor organs of the Drosophila peripheral nervous system with a function of mechanoreceptors. An adult mechanoreceptor comprises four specialized cells: shaft (trichogen), socket (tormogen), neuron, and glial cell (thecogen). All these cells originate from a single cell, the so-called sensor organ precursor (SOP) cell. Separation of the SOP cell from the encompassing cells of the imaginal disc initiates a multistage process of sensory organ development. A characteristic feature of the SOP cell is the highest amount of the proneural proteins AS-C as compared with the encompassing ectodermal cells. The accumulation of proneural proteins and maintenance of their amount in the SOP cell at a necessary level is provided by the gene network with the achaete-scute gene complex (AS-C) as its key component. The activity of this complex is controlled by the central regulatory circuit (CRC). The CRC comprises the genes hairy, senseless (sens), charlatan (chn), scratch (scrt), daughterless (da), extramacrochaete (emc), and groucho (gro), coding for the transcription factors involved in the system of direct links and feedbacks and implementation of activation-repression relationships between the CRC components. The gene phyllopod (phyl), involved in degradation of the AS-C proteins, is also associated with the CRC functioning. In this paper, we propose a mathematical model for the CRC functioning as a regulator of the amount of proneural AS-C proteins in the SOP cell taking into account their degradation. The modeling has demonstrated that a change in the amount of proneural proteins in the SOP cell is stepwise rather than strictly monotonic. This prediction can be tested experimentally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir P Golubyatnikov
- Sobolev Institute of Mathematics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, av. Akad. Koptyuga 4, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia , Novosibirsk State University, ul. Pirogova 2, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
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20
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Simakov DSA, Pismen LM. Discrete model of periodic pattern formation through a combined autocrine–juxtacrine cell signaling. Phys Biol 2013; 10:046001. [DOI: 10.1088/1478-3975/10/4/046001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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21
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Mellert DJ, Robinett CC, Baker BS. doublesex functions early and late in gustatory sense organ development. PLoS One 2012; 7:e51489. [PMID: 23240029 PMCID: PMC3519885 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2012] [Accepted: 11/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Somatic sexual dimorphisms outside of the nervous system in Drosophila melanogaster are largely controlled by the male- and female-specific Doublesex transcription factors (DSX(M) and DSX(F), respectively). The DSX proteins must act at the right times and places in development to regulate the diverse array of genes that sculpt male and female characteristics across a variety of tissues. To explore how cellular and developmental contexts integrate with doublesex (dsx) gene function, we focused on the sexually dimorphic number of gustatory sense organs (GSOs) in the foreleg. We show that DSX(M) and DSX(F) promote and repress GSO formation, respectively, and that their relative contribution to this dimorphism varies along the proximodistal axis of the foreleg. Our results suggest that the DSX proteins impact specification of the gustatory sensory organ precursors (SOPs). DSX(F) then acts later in the foreleg to regulate gustatory receptor neuron axon guidance. These results suggest that the foreleg provides a unique opportunity for examining the context-dependent functions of DSX.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Mellert
- Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
- Biology Department, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Carmen C. Robinett
- Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Bruce S. Baker
- Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
- Biology Department, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
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22
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Bukharina TA, Golubyatnikov VP, Golubyatnikov IV, Furman DP. Model investigation of central regulatory contour of gene net of D. melanogaster macrochaete morphogenesis. Russ J Dev Biol 2012. [DOI: 10.1134/s106236041201002x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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23
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Wunderlich Z, DePace AH. Modeling transcriptional networks in Drosophila development at multiple scales. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2011; 21:711-8. [PMID: 21889888 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2011.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2011] [Accepted: 07/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Quantitative models of developmental processes can provide insights at multiple scales. Ultimately, models may be particularly informative for key questions about network level behavior during development such as how does the system respond to environmental perturbation, or operate reliably in different genetic backgrounds? The transcriptional networks that pattern the Drosophila embryo have been the subject of numerous quantitative experimental studies coupled to modeling frameworks in recent years. In this review, we describe three studies that consider these networks at different levels of molecular detail and therefore result in different types of insights. We also discuss other developmental transcriptional networks operating in Drosophila, with the goal of highlighting what additional insights they may provide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeba Wunderlich
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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24
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Origin of inner ear hair cells: morphological and functional differentiation from ciliary cells into hair cells in zebrafish inner ear. J Neurosci 2011; 31:3784-94. [PMID: 21389233 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5554-10.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Auditory and vestibular functions in vertebrates depend on the transduction of sound vibration or head acceleration into electrical responses in inner ear hair cells. Mechanoelectrical transduction occurs at the tip of stereocilia, which are polarized to form an orientational arrangement that determines directional sensitivity. It remains to be clarified when and how premature hair cells acquire their specialized structure and function in living animals. The developmental origin of inner ear hair cells has been studied in vivo in zebrafish embryos. Tether cells, a small number of ciliated cells associated with an "ear stone" (or otolith) in the embryonic zebrafish inner ear, are believed to be precocious hair cells. However, whether or not tether cells acquire hair bundles and mechanosensitivity remains unknown. In the present study, we investigated the morphological and functional development of tether cells. Immunohistochemical examination revealed that stereocilia appeared on the tether cell apex in a polarized arrangement at 22 h postfertilization (hpf). Labeling with FM1-43, a marker of functional mechanotransduction channels, and the in vivo electrophysiological recording of mechanotransducer responses in the developing inner ear demonstrated that tether cells acquired direction-selective mechanosensitivity at 23 hpf. These results revealed that tether cells begin to function as hair cells within an hour after the appearance of a polarized array of stereociliary bundles. Thus, the ciliary cells morphologically and functionally differentiate into the first sensory hair cells in the inner ear of the zebrafish.
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25
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Bukharina TA, Furman DP. Asymmetric cell division in the morphogenesis of Drosophila melanogaster macrochaetae. Russ J Dev Biol 2011. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062360411010036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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26
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Bronstein R, Levkovitz L, Yosef N, Yanku M, Ruppin E, Sharan R, Westphal H, Oliver B, Segal D. Transcriptional regulation by CHIP/LDB complexes. PLoS Genet 2010; 6:e1001063. [PMID: 20730086 PMCID: PMC2921152 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1001063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2009] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
It is increasingly clear that transcription factors play versatile roles in turning genes "on" or "off" depending on cellular context via the various transcription complexes they form. This poses a major challenge in unraveling combinatorial transcription complex codes. Here we use the powerful genetics of Drosophila combined with microarray and bioinformatics analyses to tackle this challenge. The nuclear adaptor CHIP/LDB is a major developmental regulator capable of forming tissue-specific transcription complexes with various types of transcription factors and cofactors, making it a valuable model to study the intricacies of gene regulation. To date only few CHIP/LDB complexes target genes have been identified, and possible tissue-dependent crosstalk between these complexes has not been rigorously explored. SSDP proteins protect CHIP/LDB complexes from proteasome dependent degradation and are rate-limiting cofactors for these complexes. By using mutations in SSDP, we identified 189 down-stream targets of CHIP/LDB and show that these genes are enriched for the binding sites of APTEROUS (AP) and PANNIER (PNR), two well studied transcription factors associated with CHIP/LDB complexes. We performed extensive genetic screens and identified target genes that genetically interact with components of CHIP/LDB complexes in directing the development of the wings (28 genes) and thoracic bristles (23 genes). Moreover, by in vivo RNAi silencing we uncovered novel roles for two of the target genes, xbp1 and Gs-alpha, in early development of these structures. Taken together, our results suggest that loss of SSDP disrupts the normal balance between the CHIP-AP and the CHIP-PNR transcription complexes, resulting in down-regulation of CHIP-AP target genes and the concomitant up-regulation of CHIP-PNR target genes. Understanding the combinatorial nature of transcription complexes as presented here is crucial to the study of transcription regulation of gene batteries required for development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Revital Bronstein
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Liron Levkovitz
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Balvatnik School of Computer Science, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Nir Yosef
- Balvatnik School of Computer Science, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Michaela Yanku
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Eytan Ruppin
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Balvatnik School of Computer Science, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Roded Sharan
- Balvatnik School of Computer Science, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Heiner Westphal
- Section on Mammalian Molecular Genetics, Program in Genomics of Development, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Brian Oliver
- Laboratory of Cellular and Developmental Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Daniel Segal
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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