Computational and Experimental Approaches to Investigate Lipid Nanoparticles as Drug and Gene Delivery Systems

Review of Machine Learning for Lipid Nanoparticle Formulation and Process Development

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are a subset of pharmaceutical nanoparticulate formulations designed to encapsulate, stabilize, and deliver nucleic acid cargoes in vivo. Applications for lipid nanoparticles include new interventions for genetic disorders, novel classes of vaccines, and alternate modes of intracellular delivery for therapeutic proteins. In the pharmaceutical industry, establishing a robust formulation and process to achieve target product performance is a critical component of drug development. Fundamental understanding of the processes for making LNPs and their interactions with biological systems have advanced considerably in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, LNP formulation research remains largely empirical and resource intensive due to the multitude of input parameters and the complex physical phenomena that govern the processes of nanoparticle precipitation, self-assembly, structure evolution, and stability. Increasingly, artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI/ML) are being applied to improve the efficiency of research activities through in silico models and predictions, and to drive deeper fundamental understanding of experimental inputs to functional outputs. This review will identify current challenges and opportunities in the development of robust LNP formulations of nucleic acids, review studies that apply machine learning methods to experimental datasets, and provide discussion on associated data science challenges to facilitate collaboration between formulation and data scientists, aiming to accelerate the advancement of AI/ML applied to LNP formulation and process optimization.

Lipid nanoparticle (LNP) mediated mRNA delivery in cardiovascular diseases: Advances in genome editing and CAR T cell therapy

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of global mortality among non-communicable diseases. Current cardiac regeneration treatments have limitations and may lead to adverse reactions. Hence, innovative technologies are needed to address these shortcomings. Messenger RNA (mRNA) emerges as a promising therapeutic agent due to its versatility in encoding therapeutic proteins and targeting "undruggable" conditions. It offers low toxicity, high transfection efficiency, and controlled protein production without genome insertion or mutagenesis risk. However, mRNA faces challenges such as immunogenicity, instability, and difficulty in cellular entry and endosomal escape, hindering its clinical application. To overcome these hurdles, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), notably used in COVID-19 vaccines, have a great potential to deliver mRNA therapeutics for CVDs. This review highlights recent progress in mRNA-LNP therapies for CVDs, including Myocardial Infarction (MI), Heart Failure (HF), and hypercholesterolemia. In addition, LNP-mediated mRNA delivery for CAR T-cell therapy and CRISPR/Cas genome editing in CVDs and the related clinical trials are explored. To enhance the efficiency, safety, and clinical translation of mRNA-LNPs, advanced technologies like artificial intelligence (AGILE platform) in RNA structure design, and optimization of LNP formulation could be integrated. We conclude that the strategies to facilitate the extra-hepatic delivery and targeted organ tropism of mRNA-LNPs (SORT, ASSET, SMRT, and barcoded LNPs) hold great prospects to accelerate the development and translation of mRNA-LNPs in CVD treatment.

Prospectives and challenges of nano-tailored biomaterials-assisted biological molecules delivery for tissue engineering purposes

Nano carriers have gained more attention for their possible medical and technological applications. Tailored nanomaterials can transport medications efficiently to targeted areas and allow for sustained medication discharge, reducing undesirable toxicities while boosting curative effectiveness. Nonetheless, transitioning nanomedicines from experimental to therapeutic applications has proven difficult, so different pharmaceutical incorporation approaches in nano scaffolds are discussed. Then numerous types of nanobiomaterials implemented as carriers and their manufacturing techniques are explored. This article is also supported by various applications of nanobiomaterials in the biomedical field.

Advancing liposome technology for innovative strategies against malaria

This review discusses the potential of liposomes as drug delivery systems for antimalarial therapies. Malaria continues to be a significant cause of mortality and morbidity, particularly among children and pregnant women. Drug resistance due to patient non-compliance and troublesome side effects remains a significant challenge in antimalarial treatment. Liposomes, as targeted and efficient drug carriers, have garnered attention owing to their ability to address these issues. Liposomes encapsulate hydrophilic and/or hydrophobic drugs, thus providing comprehensive and suitable therapeutic drug delivery. Moreover, the potential of passive and active drug delivery enables drug concentration in specific target tissues while reducing adverse effects. However, successful liposome formulation is influenced by various factors, including drug physicochemical characteristics and physiological barriers encountered during drug delivery. To overcome these challenges, researchers have explored modifications in liposome nanocarriers to achieve efficient drug loading, controlled release, and system stability. Computational approaches have also been adopted to predict liposome system stability, membrane integrity, and drug-liposome interactions, improving formulation development efficiency. By leveraging computational methods, optimizing liposomal drug delivery systems holds promise for enhancing treatment efficacy and minimizing side effects in malaria therapy. This review consolidates the current understanding and highlights the potential of liposome strategies against malaria.

Molecular dynamics investigation on synthesis of a pH- and temperature-sensitive carbon nanotube loaded with doxorubicin

The many exotic properties of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) make them a powerful attraction in the field of drug delivery systems (DDS). In this work, based on quantum chemical calculation and molecular simulation techniques, polyacrylic acid (PAA) and N-isopropyl acrylamide (NIP) are selected and acted simultaneously on the CNT to form a stable system (FCNT). As a potential DDS, FCNT captures the dispersed doxorubicin (DOX) molecules around it and maintains a stable configuration. In these processes, electrostatic and van der Waals forces act synergistically, with van der Waals forces dominating. Compared to NIP, PAA molecules exhibit stronger adhesion and encapsulation efficiency to CNT and stronger adsorption capacity to DOX. This study reveals the mechanism of action among PAA, NIP, CNT, and DOX, providing feasibility verification and prospective guidance for the experimental synthesis of PAA-NIP-CNT-type multifunctional DDS, and also broadening the idea for exploring more efficient DDS suitable for DOX.

Nanotechnology-based non-viral vectors for gene delivery in cardiovascular diseases

Gene therapy is a technique that rectifies defective or abnormal genes by introducing exogenous genes into target cells to cure the disease. Although gene therapy has gained some accomplishment for the diagnosis and therapy of inherited or acquired cardiovascular diseases, how to efficiently and specifically deliver targeted genes to the lesion sites without being cleared by the blood system remains challenging. Based on nanotechnology development, the non-viral vectors provide a promising strategy for overcoming the difficulties in gene therapy. At present, according to the physicochemical properties, nanotechnology-based non-viral vectors include polymers, liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles. Non-viral vectors have an advantage in safety, efficiency, and easy production, possessing potential clinical application value when compared with viral vectors. Therefore, we summarized recent research progress of gene therapy for cardiovascular diseases based on commonly used non-viral vectors, hopefully providing guidance and orientation for future relevant research.

Lipid shape and packing are key for optimal design of pH-sensitive mRNA lipid nanoparticles

The ionizable-lipid component of RNA-containing nanoparticles controls the pH-dependent behavior necessary for an efficient delivery of the cargo-the so-called endosomal escape. However, it is still an empirical exercise to identify optimally performing lipids. Here, we study two well-known ionizable lipids, DLin-MC3-DMA and DLin-DMA using a combination of experiments, multiscale computer simulations, and electrostatic theory. All-atom molecular dynamics simulations, and experimentally measured polar headgroup pKa values, are used to develop a coarse-grained representation of the lipids, which enables the investigation of the pH-dependent behavior of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) through Monte Carlo simulations, in the absence and presence of RNA molecules. Our results show that the charge state of the lipids is determined by the interplay between lipid shape and headgroup chemistry, providing an explanation for the similar pH-dependent ionization state observed for lipids with headgroup pKa values about one-pH-unit apart. The pH dependence of lipid ionization is significantly influenced by the presence of RNA, whereby charge neutrality is achieved by imparting a finite and constant charge per lipid at intermediate pH values. The simulation results are experimentally supported by measurements of α-carbon 13C-NMR chemical shifts for eGFP mRNA LNPs of both DLin-MC3-DMA and DLin-DMA at various pH conditions. Further, we evaluate the applicability of a mean-field Poisson-Boltzmann theory to capture these phenomena.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Drug/Gene Delivery: An Overview of the Production Techniques and Difficulties Encountered in Their Industrial Development

Over the past decade, the therapeutic potential of nanomaterials as novel drug delivery systems complementing conventional pharmacology has been widely acknowledged. Among these nanomaterials, lipid-based nanoparticles (LNPs) have shown remarkable pharmacological performance and promising therapeutic outcomes, thus gaining substantial interest in preclinical and clinical research. In this review, we introduce the main types of LNPs used in drug formulations such as liposomes, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles, focusing on their main physicochemical properties and therapeutic potential. We discuss computational studies and modeling techniques to enhance the understanding of how LNPs interact with therapeutic cargo and to predict the potential effectiveness of such interactions in therapeutic applications. We also analyze the benefits and drawbacks of various LNP production techniques such as nanoprecipitation, emulsification, evaporation, thin film hydration, microfluidic-based methods, and an impingement jet mixer. Additionally, we discuss the major challenges associated with industrial development, including stability and sterilization, storage, regulatory compliance, reproducibility, and quality control. Overcoming these challenges and facilitating regulatory compliance represent the key steps toward LNP's successful commercialization and translation into clinical settings.

Could artificial intelligence revolutionize the development of nanovectors for gene therapy and mRNA vaccines?

Gene therapy enables the introduction of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA into host cells, and is expected to revolutionize the treatment of a wide range of diseases. This growth has been further accelerated by the discovery of CRISPR/Cas technology, which allows accurate genomic editing in a broad range of cells and organisms in vitro and in vivo. Despite many advances in gene delivery and the development of various viral and non-viral gene delivery vectors, the lack of highly efficient non-viral systems with low cellular toxicity remains a challenge. The application of cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) has great potential to find new paradigms to solve this issue. Herein, we review AI and its major subfields including machine learning (ML), neural networks (NNs), expert systems, deep learning (DL), computer vision and robotics. We discuss the potential of AI-based models and algorithms in the design of targeted gene delivery vehicles capable of crossing extracellular and intracellular barriers by viral mimicry strategies. We finally discuss the role of AI in improving the function of CRISPR/Cas systems, developing novel nanobots, and mRNA vaccine carriers.

Targeting Gastric Cancer Stem Cells to Enhance Treatment Response

Gastric cancer (GC) was the fourth deadliest cancer in the world in 2020, and about 770,000 people died from GC that year. The death of patients with GC is mainly caused by the metastasis, recurrence, and chemotherapy resistance of GC cells. The cancer stem cell theory defines cancer stem cells (CSCs) as a key factor in the metastasis, recurrence, and chemotherapy resistance of cancer. It considers targeting gastric cancer stem cells (GCSCs) to be an effective method for the treatment of GC. For GCSCs, genes or noncoding RNAs are important regulatory factors. Many experimental studies have found that some drugs can target the stemness of gastric cancer by regulating these genes or noncoding RNAs, which may bring new directions for the clinical treatment of gastric cancer. Therefore, this review mainly discusses related genes or noncoding RNAs in GCSCs and drugs that target its stemness, thereby providing some information for the treatment of GC.

A forskolin-loaded nanodelivery system prevents noise-induced hearing loss

Hearing loss is the most common sensory disorder worldwide and may result from age, drugs, or exposure to excessive noise. Crossing the blood-labyrinth barrier to achieve targeted drug delivery to the inner ear is key to the treatment of hearing loss. We designed a nanoparticle (NP)-based system for targeted drug delivery of forskolin (FSK) to the inner ear, driven by the prestin-targeting peptide LS19 ("ligand-receptor type interaction"). In vivo experiments in developing zebrafish embryos (4-96 h past fertilization) and mice confirmed that LS19-FSK specifically targeted and accumulated in zebrafish lateral line neuromasts and mouse outer hair cells (OHCs). LS19 peptide modification enabled LS19-FSK-NPs to rapidly target OHCs with high specificity. Furthermore, the multifunctional LS19-FSK-NPs were successfully delivered to the OHCs via the round window membrane route and exhibited slow-release properties. The sustained release and intracellular accumulation of FSK inhibited apoptosis of OHCs. Compared with LS19-NPs and FSK-NPs, LS19-FSK-NPs provided significantly stronger protection against noise-induced hearing damage, based on auditory brainstem responses at 4, 8, 16, and 32 kHz. Thus, our specially designed targeted nano-delivery system may serve as a basis for future clinical applications and treatment platforms and has the potential to significantly improve the treatment results of many inner ear diseases.

Advances in Nanoliposomes for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Liver Cancer

The mortality rate of liver cancer is gradually increasing worldwide due to the increasing risk factors such as fatty liver, diabetes, and alcoholic cirrhosis. The diagnostic methods of liver cancer include ultrasound (US), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), among others. The treatment of liver cancer includes surgical resection, transplantation, ablation, and chemoembolization; however, treatment still faces multiple challenges due to its insidious development, high rate of recurrence after surgical resection, and high failure rate of transplantation. The emergence of liposomes has provided new insights into the treatment of liver cancer. Due to their excellent carrier properties and maneuverability, liposomes can be used to perform a variety of functions such as aiding in imaging diagnoses, combinatorial therapies, and integrating disease diagnosis and treatment. In this paper, we further discuss such advantages.

Lipid Nanoparticles─From Liposomes to mRNA Vaccine Delivery, a Landscape of Research Diversity and Advancement

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged across the pharmaceutical industry as promising vehicles to deliver a variety of therapeutics. Currently in the spotlight as vital components of the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines, LNPs play a key role in effectively protecting and transporting mRNA to cells. Liposomes, an early version of LNPs, are a versatile nanomedicine delivery platform. A number of liposomal drugs have been approved and applied to medical practice. Subsequent generations of lipid nanocarriers, such as solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and cationic lipid-nucleic acid complexes, exhibit more complex architectures and enhanced physical stabilities. With their ability to encapsulate and deliver therapeutics to specific locations within the body and to release their contents at a desired time, LNPs provide a valuable platform for treatment of a variety of diseases. Here, we present a landscape of LNP-related scientific publications, including patents and journal articles, based on analysis of the CAS Content Collection, the largest human-curated collection of published scientific knowledge. Rising trends are identified, such as nanostructured lipid carriers and solid lipid nanoparticles becoming the preferred platforms for numerous formulations. Recent advancements in LNP formulations as drug delivery platforms, such as antitumor and nucleic acid therapeutics and vaccine delivery systems, are discussed. Challenges and growth opportunities are also evaluated in other areas, such as medical imaging, cosmetics, nutrition, and agrochemicals. This report is intended to serve as a useful resource for those interested in LNP nanotechnologies, their applications, and the global research effort for their development.

Harnessing lipid nanoparticles for efficient CRISPR delivery

The CRISPR-Cas system has revolutionized the biomedical research field with its simple and flexible genome editing method. In October 2020, Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna were awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in chemistry in recognition of their outstanding contributions to the discovery of CRISPR-Cas9 genetic scissors, which allow scientists to alter DNA sequences with high precision. Recently, the first phase I clinical trials in cancer patients affirmed the safety and feasibility of ex vivo CRISPR-edited T cells. However, specific and effective CRISPR delivery in vivo remains challenging due to the multiple extracellular and intracellular barriers. Here, we discuss the recent advances in novel lipid nanomaterials for CRISPR delivery and describe relevant examples of potential therapeutics in cancers, genetic disorders, and infectious diseases.