The Biology of TRAIL and the Role of TRAIL-Based Therapeutics in Infectious Diseases

Inorganic nanoparticle-based treatment approaches for colorectal cancer: recent advancements and challenges

Colorectal cancer, the third most prevalent cancer globally, contributes significantly to mortality rates, with over 1.9 million reported cases and nearly 935,000 fatalities annually. Surgical resection is a primary approach for localized colorectal tumors, with adjunct therapies like chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and targeted/immunotherapy considered depending on the tumor stage. However, despite preferences for targeted and immunotherapy post-surgery, chemotherapy remains commonly chosen due to its lower cost and high cancer-killing efficiency. Yet, chemotherapy faces issues such as tumor resistance and severe side effects. Nanotechnology has emerged in cancer therapy by alleviating the drawbacks of current treatment approaches. In the past few decades, inorganic nanoparticles have shown promise in combating colorectal cancer, offering advantages over conventional chemotherapy. Compared to organic nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles exhibit properties like photosensitivity, conductivity, magnetic allure, and thermal proficiency, allowing them to function as both drug carriers and therapeutic agents. Derived primarily from carbon, silica, metals, and metal oxides, they offer superior drug-loading capacity, heightened quantum yield, and participation in advanced photothermal and photodynamic therapies. This review provides a brief overview of the pathophysiology of colorectal cancer and the pivotal role of inorganic nanoparticles in photothermal therapy photodynamic therapy, and drug delivery. Additionally, it discusses numerous inorganic nanoparticles in colorectal cancer therapy based on recent literature.

Neuroinflammatory markers at school age in preterm born children with neurodevelopmental impairments

Background

Immune system activation in the neonatal period is associated with white matter injury in preterm infants. In animal studies, neonatal priming of the immune system leads to chronic activation of i.e. microglia cells and altered neuroinflammatory responses potentially years after preterm birth. This may contribute further to brain injury and neurodevelopmental impairment. It is unknown to what extend this also occurs in human.

Aim

To identify neuro-inflammatory markers at school age that relate to motor, cognitive and behavioral impairments in preterm born children in a pilot case-control study.

Methods

We included n = 20 preterm born children (GA < 28 weeks) in this study, of which n = 10 with motor, cognitive and behavorial impairments and n = 10 preterm born controls next to n = 30 healthy adult controls. In the preterm children, at 8-9 years, 39 inflammatory markers were assessed by Luminex assay in blood serum samples. Firstly, the preterm concentrations of these markers were compared to n = 30 adult controls. Then a univariate analysis was performed to determine differences in values between preterm children with and without impairment at school age. Finally, a principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering was performed to identify protein profiles in preterm born children that relate to impairment at school age.

Results

Inflammatory proteins in preterm children at school age differed from values of adult controls. Within the group of preterm children, we found significantly higher levels of GM-CSF in preterms with impairment (p < 0.01) and a trend towards significance for Gal1 and TRAIL (p = 0.06 and p = 0.06 respectively) when compared to preterms without impairment. In addition, differences in clustering of proteins between preterm children was observed, however this variance was not explained by presence of neurodevelopmental impairments.

Conclusion

The inflammatory profile at school age in preterm children is different from that of adult controls. The immune modulating cytokines GM-CSF, Gal1 and TRAIL were higher in preterm children with impairment than control preterm children, suggesting that immune responses are altered in these children. No specific cluster of inflammatory markers could be identified. Results indicate that even at school age, neuroinflammatory pathways are activated in preterm born children with neurodevelopmental impairments.

TRAIL and IP-10 dynamics in pregnant women post COVID-19 vaccination: associations with neutralizing antibody potency

Introduction

The aim of this study is to investigate changes in TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and gamma interferon-induced protein 10 (IP-10) after COVID-19 vaccination in pregnant women and to explore their association with neutralizing antibody (Nab) inhibition.

Methods

The study evaluated 93 pregnant women who had previously received two (n=21), three (n=55) or four (n=17) doses of COVID-19 vaccine. Also we evaluated maternal blood samples that were collected during childbirth. The levels of TRAIL, IP-10 and Nab inhibition were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA).

Results and discussion

Our study revealed four-dose group resulted in lower TRAIL levels when compared to the two-dose and three-dose groups (4.78 vs. 16.07 vs. 21.61 pg/ml, p = 0.014). The two-dose group had reduced IP-10 levels than the three-dose cohort (111.49 vs. 147.89 pg/ml, p=0.013), with no significant variation compared to the four-dose group. In addition, the four-dose group showed stronger Nab inhibition against specific strains (BA.2 and BA.5) than the three-dose group. A positive correlation was observed between TRAIL and IP-10 in the two-dose group, while this relationship was not found in other dose groups or between TRAIL/IP-10 and Nab inhibition. As the doses of the COVID-19 vaccine increase, the levels of TRAIL and IP-10 generally increase, only by the fourth dose, the group previously vaccinated with AZD1222 showed lower TRAIL but higher IP-10. Despite these changes, more doses of the vaccine consistently reinforced Nab inhibition, apparently without any relation to TRAIL and IP-10 levels. The variation may indicate the induction of immunological memory in vaccinated mothers, which justifies further research in the future.

Advances in sepsis biomarkers

Sepsis, a dysregulated host immune response to an infectious agent, significantly increases morbidity and mortality for hospitalized patients worldwide. This chapter reviews (1) the basic principles of infectious diseases, pathophysiology and current definition of sepsis, (2) established sepsis biomarkers such lactate, procalcitonin and C-reactive protein, (3) novel, newly regulatory-cleared/approved biomarkers, such as assays that evaluate white blood cell properties and immune response molecules, and (4) emerging biomarkers and biomarker panels to highlight future directions and opportunities in the diagnosis and management of sepsis.

Chemical Activation and Mechanical Sensitization of Piezo1 Enhance TRAIL-Mediated Apoptosis in Glioblastoma Cells

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the most common and aggressive type of primary brain tumor, has a mean survival of less than 15 months after standard treatment. Treatment with the current standard of care, temozolomide (TMZ), may be ineffective if damaged tumor cells undergo DNA repair or acquire mutations that inactivate transcription factor p53. Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) triggers apoptosis in multiple tumor types, while evading healthy cells, through a transcription-independent mechanism. GBM is particularly resistant to TRAIL, but studies have found that the mechanoreceptor Piezo1 can be activated under static conditions via Yoda1 agonist to induce TRAIL sensitization in other cancer cell lines. This study examines the effects and the mechanism of chemical and mechanical activation of Piezo1, via Yoda1 and fluid shear stress (FSS) stimulation, on TRAIL-mediated apoptosis in GBM cells. Here, we demonstrate that Yoda1 + TRAIL and FSS + TRAIL combination therapies significantly increase apoptosis in two GBM cell lines relative to controls. Further, cells known to be resistant to TMZ were found to have higher levels of Piezo1 expression and were more susceptible to TRAIL sensitization by Piezo1 activation. The combinatory Yoda1 + TRAIL treatment significantly decreased cell viability in TMZ-resistant GBM cells when compared to treatment with both low and high doses of TMZ. The results of this study suggest the potential of a highly specific and minimally invasive approach to overcome TMZ resistance in GBM by sensitizing cancer cells to TRAIL treatment via chemical or mechanical activation of Piezo1.

TRAIL/S-layer/graphene quantum dot nanohybrid enhanced stability and anticancer activity of TRAIL on colon cancer cells

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL), known as a cytokine of the TNF superfamily, is considered a promising antitumor agent due to its ability to selectively induce apoptosis in a wide variety of cancer cells. However, failure of its successful translation into clinic has led to development of nano-based platforms aiming to improve TRAIL therapeutic efficacy. In this regard, we fabricated a novel TRAIL-S-layer fusion protein (S-TRAIL) conjugated with graphene quantum dots (GQDs) to benefit both the self-assembly of S-layer proteins, which leads to elevated TRAIL functional stability, and unique optical properties of GQDs. Noncovalent conjugation of biocompatible GQDs and soluble fusion protein was verified via UV–visible and fluorescence spectroscopy, size and ζ-potential measurements and transmission electron microscopy. The potential anticancer efficacy of the nanohybrid system on intrinsically resistant cells to TRAIL (HT-29 human colon carcinoma cells) was investigated by MTT assay and flow cytometry, which indicated about 80% apoptosis in cancer cells. These results highlight the potential of TRAIL as a therapeutic protein that can be extensively improved by taking advantage of nanotechnology and introduce S-TRAIL/GQD complex as a promising nanohybrid system in cancer treatment.

Cytokine, Chemokine, and Metalloprotease Activation in the Serum of Patients with Nephropathia Epidemica from the Republic of Tatarstan and the Republic of Mordovia, Russia

Nephropathia Epidemica (NE), endemic to several Volga regions of Russia, including the Republic of Tatarstan (RT) and the Republic of Mordovia (RM), is a mild form of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome caused by infection with rodent-borne orthohantaviruses. Although NE cases have been reported for decades, little is known about the hantavirus strains associated with human infection in these regions. There is also limited understanding of the pathogenesis of NE in the RT and the RM. To address these knowledge gaps, we conducted comparative analyses of patients with NE in the RT and the RM. Clinical symptoms were more severe in patients with NE from the RM with longer observed duration of fever symptoms and hospitalization. Analysis of patient sera showed changes in the levels of numerous cytokines, chemokines, and matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) in patients with NE from both the RT and the RM, suggesting leukocyte activation, extracellular matrix degradation, and leukocyte chemotaxis. Interestingly, levels of several cytokines were distinctly different between patients NE from the RT when compared with those from the RM. These differences were not related to the genetic variation of orthohantaviruses circulating in those regions, as sequence analysis showed that Puumala virus (PUUV) was the causative agent of NE in these regions. Additionally, only the “Russia” (RUS) genetic lineage of PUUV was detected in the serum samples of patients with NE from both the RT and the RM. We therefore conclude that differences in serum cytokine, chemokine, and MMP levels between the RT and the RM are related to environmental factors and lifestyle differences that influence individual immune responses to orthohantavirus infection.

Biosensors for detecting viral and bacterial infections using host biomarkers: a review

A schematic diagram showing multiple modes of biosensing platforms for the diagnosis of bacterial or viral infections.

MicroRNAs in cancer cell death pathways: Apoptosis and necroptosis

To protect tissues and the organism from disease, potentially harmful cells are removed through programmed cell death processes, including apoptosis and necroptosis. These types of cell death are critically controlled by microRNAs (miRNAs). MiRNAs are short RNA molecules that target and inhibit expression of many cellular regulators, including those controlling programmed cell death via the intrinsic (Bcl-2 and Mcl-1), extrinsic (TRAIL and Fas), p53-and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced apoptotic pathways, as well as the necroptosis cell death pathway. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of apoptosis and necroptosis pathways and how these are impaired in cancer cells. We focus on how miRNAs disrupt apoptosis and necroptosis, thereby critically contributing to malignancy. Understanding which and how miRNAs and their targets affect cell death pathways could open up novel therapeutic opportunities for cancer patients. Indeed, restoration of pro-apoptotic tumor suppressor miRNAs (apoptomiRs) or inhibition of oncogenic miRNAs (oncomiRs) represent strategies that are currently being trialed or are already applied as miRNA-based cancer therapies. Therefore, better understanding the cancer type-specific expression of apoptomiRs and oncomiRs and their underlying mechanisms in cell death pathways will not only advance our knowledge, but also continue to provide new opportunities to treat cancer.

Multiple Interactions Between Cancer Cells and the Tumor Microenvironment Modulate TRAIL Signaling: Implications for TRAIL Receptor Targeted Therapy

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) signaling is far more complex than initially anticipated and can lead to either anti- or protumorigenic effects, hampering the successful clinical use of therapeutic TRAIL receptor agonists. Cell autonomous resistance mechanisms have been identified in addition to paracrine factors that can modulate apoptosis sensitivity. The tumor microenvironment (TME), consisting of cellular and non-cellular components, is a source for multiple signals that are able to modulate TRAIL signaling in tumor and stromal cells. Particularly immune effector cells, also part of the TME, employ the TRAIL/TRAIL-R system whereby cell surface expressed TRAIL can activate apoptosis via TRAIL receptors on tumor cells, which is part of tumor immune surveillance. In this review we aim to dissect the impact of the TME on signaling induced by endogenous and exogenous/therapeutic TRAIL, thereby distinguishing different components of the TME such as immune effector cells, neutrophils, macrophages, and non-hematopoietic stromal cells. In addition, also non-cellular biochemical and biophysical properties of the TME are considered including mechanical stress, acidity, hypoxia, and glucose deprivation. Available literature thus far indicates that tumor-TME interactions are complex and often bidirectional leading to tumor-enhancing or tumor-reducing effects in a tumor model- and tumor type-dependent fashion. Multiple signals originating from different components of the TME simultaneously affect TRAIL receptor signaling. We conclude that in order to unleash the full clinical potential of TRAIL receptor agonists it will be necessary to increase our understanding of the contribution of different TME components on outcome of therapeutic TRAIL receptor activation in order to identify the most critical mechanism responsible for resistance, allowing the design of effective combination treatments.

Virus Infection and Death Receptor-Mediated Apoptosis

Virus infection can trigger extrinsic apoptosis. Cell-surface death receptors of the tumor necrosis factor family mediate this process. They either assist persistent viral infection or elicit the elimination of infected cells by the host. Death receptor-mediated apoptosis plays an important role in viral pathogenesis and the host antiviral response. Many viruses have acquired the capability to subvert death receptor-mediated apoptosis and evade the host immune response, mainly by virally encoded gene products that suppress death receptor-mediated apoptosis. In this review, we summarize the current information on virus infection and death receptor-mediated apoptosis, particularly focusing on the viral proteins that modulate death receptor-mediated apoptosis.

The Impact of the Interferon/TNF-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand Signaling Axis on Disease Progression in Respiratory Viral Infection and Beyond

Interferons (IFNs) are well described to be rapidly induced upon pathogen-associated pattern recognition. After binding to their respective IFN receptors and activation of the cellular JAK/signal transducer and activator of transcription signaling cascade, they stimulate the transcription of a plethora of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) in infected as well as bystander cells such as the non-infected epithelium and cells of the immune system. ISGs may directly act on the invading pathogen or can either positively or negatively regulate the innate and adaptive immune response. However, IFNs and ISGs do not only play a key role in the limitation of pathogen spread but have also been recently found to provoke an unbalanced, overshooting inflammatory response causing tissue injury and hampering repair processes. A prominent regulator of disease outcome, especially in-but not limited to-respiratory viral infection, is the IFN-dependent mediator TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) produced by several cell types including immune cells such as macrophages or T cells. First described as an apoptosis-inducing agent in transformed cells, it is now also well established to rapidly evoke cellular stress pathways in epithelial cells, finally leading to caspase-dependent or -independent cell death. Hereby, pathogen spread is limited; however in some cases, also the surrounding tissue is severely harmed, thus augmenting disease severity. Interestingly, the lack of a strictly controlled and well balanced IFN/TRAIL signaling response has not only been implicated in viral infection but might furthermore be an important determinant of disease progression in bacterial superinfections and in chronic respiratory illness. Conclusively, the IFN/TRAIL signaling axis is subjected to a complex modulation and might be exploited for the evaluation of new therapeutic concepts aiming at attenuation of tissue injury.

Mechanisms of foot-and-mouth disease virus tropism inferred from differential tissue gene expression

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) targets specific tissues for primary infection, secondary high-titer replication (e.g. foot and mouth where it causes typical vesicular lesions) and long-term persistence at some primary replication sites. Although integrin αVβ6 receptor has been identified as primary FMDV receptors in animals, their tissue distribution alone fails to explain these highly selective tropism-driven events. Thus, other molecular mechanisms must play roles in determining this tissue specificity. We hypothesized that differences in certain biological activities due to differential gene expression determine FMDV tropism and applied whole genome gene expression profiling to identify genes differentially expressed between FMDV-targeted and non-targeted tissues in terms of supporting primary infection, secondary replication including vesicular lesions, and persistence. Using statistical and bioinformatic tools to analyze the differential gene expression, we identified mechanisms that could explain FMDV tissue tropism based on its association with differential expression of integrin αVβ6 heterodimeric receptor (FMDV receptor), fibronectin (ligand of the receptor), IL-1 cytokines, death receptors and the ligands, and multiple genes in the biological pathways involved in extracellular matrix turnover and interferon signaling found in this study. Our results together with reported findings indicate that differences in (1) FMDV receptor availability and accessibility, (2) type I interferon-inducible immune response, and (3) ability to clear virus infected cells via death receptor signaling play roles in determining FMDV tissue tropism and the additional increase of high extracellular matrix turnover induced by FMDV infection, likely via triggering the signaling of highly expressed IL-1 cytokines, play a key role in the pathogenesis of vesicular lesions.

Clinical targeting of the TNF and TNFR superfamilies

Inhibitors of tumour necrosis factor (TNF) are among the most successful protein-based drugs (biologics) and have proven to be clinically efficacious at reducing inflammation associated with several autoimmune diseases. As a result, attention is focusing on the therapeutic potential of additional members of the TNF superfamily of structurally related cytokines. Many of these TNF-related cytokines or their cognate receptors are now in preclinical or clinical development as possible targets for modulating inflammatory diseases and cancer as well as other indications. This Review focuses on the biologics that are currently in clinical trials for immune-related diseases and other syndromes, discusses the successes and failures to date as well as the expanding therapeutic potential of modulating the activity of this superfamily of molecules.

Immunomodulation using agonists and antagonists: potential clinical applications

INTRODUCTION

Extensive studies have gone into understanding the differential role of the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system in the context of various diseases. Receptor-ligand interactions are responsible for mediating cross-talk between the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system, so as to effectively counter the pathogenic challenge. While TLRs remain the best studied innate immune receptor, many other receptor families are now coming to the fore for their role in various pathologies. Research has focused on the discovery of novel agonists and antagonists for these receptors as potential therapeutics.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we present an overview of the recent advances in the discovery of drugs targeting important receptors such as G-protein coupled receptors, TRAIL-R, IL-1β receptor, PPARs, etc. All these receptors play a critical role in the modulation of the immune response. We focus on the recent paradigms applied for the generation of specific and effective therapeutics for these receptors and their status in clinical trials.

EXPERT OPINION

Non-specific activation by antagonist/agonist is a difficult problem to dodge. This demands innovation in ligand designing with the use of strategies such as allosterism and dual-specific ligands. Rigorous preclinical and clinical studies are required in transforming a compound to a therapeutic.