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Zagórska A, Czopek A, Fryc M, Jaromin A, Boyd BJ. Drug Discovery and Development Targeting Dementia. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:151. [PMID: 37259302 PMCID: PMC9965722 DOI: 10.3390/ph16020151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Dementia, most often associated with neurodegenerative diseases, affects millions of people worldwide, predominantly the elderly. Unfortunately, no treatment is still available. Therefore, there is an urgent need to address this situation. This review presents the state of the art of drug discovery and developments in targeting dementia. Several approaches are discussed, such as drug repurposing, the use of small molecules, and phosphodiesterase inhibitors. Furthermore, the review also provides insights into clinical trials of these molecules. Emphasis has been placed on small molecules and multi-target-directed ligands, as well as disease-modifying therapies. Finally, attention is drawn to the possibilities of applications of nanotechnology in managing dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Zagórska
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Anna Czopek
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Monika Fryc
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Anna Jaromin
- Department of Lipids and Liposomes, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Ben J. Boyd
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Drug Delivery Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
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Ferrari F, Moretti A, Villa RF. Incretin-based drugs as potential therapy for neurodegenerative diseases: current status and perspectives. Pharmacol Ther 2022; 239:108277. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Ferrari F, Moretti A, Villa RF. The treament of hyperglycemia in acute ischemic stroke with incretin-based drugs. Pharmacol Res 2020; 160:105018. [PMID: 32574826 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.105018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a major cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Considerable experimental and clinical evidence suggests that both diabetes mellitus (DM) and post-stroke hyperglycemia are associated with increased mortality rate and worsened clinical conditions in acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients. Insulin treatment does not seem to provide convincing benefits for these patients, therefore prompting a change of strategy. The selective agonists of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptors (GLP-1Ras) and the Inhibitors of Dipeptidyl Peptidase-IV (DPP-IVIs, gliptins) are two newer classes of glucose-lowering drugs used for the treatment of DM. This review examines in detail the rationale for their development and the physicochemical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties and clinical activities. Emphasis will be placed on their neuroprotective effects at cellular and molecular levels in experimental models of acute cerebral ischemia. In perspective, an adequate basis does exist for a novel therapeutic approach to hyperglycemia in AIS patients through the additive treatment with GLP-1Ras plus DPP-IVIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Ferrari
- Department of Advanced Diagnostic and Therapeutic Technologies, Section of Neuroradiology, ASST Grande Ospedale Metropolitano Niguarda, Piazza Ospedale Maggiore 3, 20162 Milano, Italy; Departments of Biology-Biotechnology and Chemistry, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Molecular Medicine of Central Nervous System, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Antonio Moretti
- Departments of Biology-Biotechnology and Chemistry, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Molecular Medicine of Central Nervous System, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Roberto Federico Villa
- Departments of Biology-Biotechnology and Chemistry, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Molecular Medicine of Central Nervous System, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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Current status and future prospects of pathophysiology-based neuroprotective drugs for the treatment of vascular dementia. Drug Discov Today 2020; 25:793-799. [PMID: 31981482 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2020.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Vascular dementia (VaD) is a progressive neurocognitive clinical syndrome that is caused by a decrease in cerebral blood flow and damage to the neurovascular unit. Given increasing life expectancy, VaD is emerging as one of the leading health problems in society. Despite the high global prevalence of cognitive impairment associated with VaD, diagnosis and treatment still remain limited because of the complexity of mechanisms of neuronal loss. Therefore, advances in our understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved is crucial for the development of new therapeutic strategies. In this review, we highlight the pathophysiology, current pharmacology-based primary and secondary prevention strategies and emerging treatment options for VaD.
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Ferrari F, Viscardi P, Gorini A, Villa RF. Synaptic ATPases system of rat frontal cerebral cortex during aging. Neurosci Lett 2019; 694:74-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Sohn E, Kim YJ, Lim HS, Kim BY, Jeong SJ. Hwangryunhaedok-Tang Exerts Neuropreventive Effect on Memory Impairment by Reducing Cholinergic System Dysfunction and Inflammatory Response in a Vascular Dementia Rat Model. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24020343. [PMID: 30669383 PMCID: PMC6358959 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24020343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Hwangryunhaedok-tang (HRT) is a traditional oriental herbal formula used in Asian countries for treating inflammatory diseases and controlling fever. Our present study aimed to determine whether HRT has therapeutic effects for patients with vascular dementia (VaD) using a bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) rat model and assessing spatial memory impairment and activation of neuroinflammation. BCCAO was performed in male Sprague Dawley rats to induce VaD, and oral HRT was administered daily for 30 d. Our data showed that HRT ameliorated BCCAO-induced memory and cognitive impairment in behavioral tests. In addition, HRT reversed cholinergic dysfunction and neuronal damage in the hippocampus of BCCAO rats. Furthermore, HRT attenuated microglial activation and reduced the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) induced by BCCAO. Simultaneous high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of HRT using index compounds from the herbal composition revealed that both HRT ethanol extract and commercial HRT granules primarily comprise geniposide, baicalin, and berberine. Our study showed that HRT administration resulted in the prevention of neuronal injury induced by BCCAO through improvement of cholinergic dysfunction and inhibition of neuroinflammatory responses, suggesting that HRT may have potential as a treatment for VaD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunjin Sohn
- Clinical Medicine Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Korea.
| | - Yu Jin Kim
- Clinical Medicine Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Korea.
- College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea.
| | - Hye-Sun Lim
- Clinical Medicine Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Korea.
| | - Bu-Yeo Kim
- Clinical Medicine Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Korea.
| | - Soo-Jin Jeong
- Clinical Medicine Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Korea.
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Villa RF, Ferrari F, Bagini L, Gorini A, Brunello N, Tascedda F. Mitochondrial energy metabolism of rat hippocampus after treatment with the antidepressants desipramine and fluoxetine. Neuropharmacology 2017; 121:30-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2016] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Kim DY, Kim YH, Lee J, Chang WH, Kim MW, Pyun SB, Yoo WK, Ohn SH, Park KD, Oh BM, Lim SH, Jung KJ, Ryu BJ, Im S, Jee SJ, Seo HG, Rah UW, Park JH, Sohn MK, Chun MH, Shin HS, Lee SJ, Lee YS, Park SW, Park YG, Paik NJ, Lee SG, Lee JK, Koh SE, Kim DK, Park GY, Shin YI, Ko MH, Kim YW, Yoo SD, Kim EJ, Oh MK, Chang JH, Jung SH, Kim TW, Kim WS, Kim DH, Park TH, Lee KS, Hwang BY, Song YJ. Clinical Practice Guideline for Stroke Rehabilitation in Korea 2016. BRAIN & NEUROREHABILITATION 2017. [DOI: 10.12786/bn.2017.10.e11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Deog Young Kim
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Yun-Hee Kim
- Department of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Korea
| | - Jongmin Lee
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Korea
| | - Won Hyuk Chang
- Department of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Korea
| | - Min-Wook Kim
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Korea
| | - Sung-Bom Pyun
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Korea University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Woo-Kyoung Yoo
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Hallym University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Suk Hoon Ohn
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Hallym University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Ki Deok Park
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Gachon University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Byung-Mo Oh
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Seong Hoon Lim
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Korea
| | - Kang Jae Jung
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Eulji University Hospital & Eulji University School of Medicine, Korea
| | - Byung-Ju Ryu
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Sahmyook Medical Center, Korea
| | - Sun Im
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Korea
| | - Sung Ju Jee
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Chungnam National University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Han Gil Seo
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Ueon Woo Rah
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Ajou University School of Medicine, Korea
| | - Joo Hyun Park
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Korea
| | - Min Kyun Sohn
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Chungnam National University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Min Ho Chun
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Hee Suk Shin
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine and Institute of Health Sciences, Gyeongsang National University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Seong Jae Lee
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, College of Medicine Dankook University, Korea
| | - Yang-Soo Lee
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine, Korea
| | - Si-Woon Park
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Catholic Kwandong University International St Mary's Hospital, Korea
| | - Yoon Ghil Park
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Nam Jong Paik
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Sam-Gyu Lee
- Department of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Korea
| | - Ju Kang Lee
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Gachon University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Seong-Eun Koh
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Korea
| | - Don-Kyu Kim
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Korea
| | - Geun-Young Park
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Korea
| | - Yong Il Shin
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Pusan National University Hospital, Korea
| | - Myoung-Hwan Ko
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Chonbuk National University Medical School, Korea
| | - Yong Wook Kim
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Seung Don Yoo
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Kyung Hee University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Eun Joo Kim
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, National Rehabilitation Hospital, Korea
| | - Min-Kyun Oh
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine and Institute of Health Sciences, Gyeongsang National University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Jae Hyeok Chang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Pusan National University Hospital, Korea
| | - Se Hee Jung
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Tae-Woo Kim
- TBI rehabilitation center, National Traffic Injury Rehabilitation Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Korea
| | - Won-Seok Kim
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Korea
| | - Dae Hyun Kim
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Veterans Health Service Medical Center, Korea
| | - Tai Hwan Park
- Department of Neurology, Seoul Medical Center, Korea
| | - Kwan-Sung Lee
- Department of Neurosurgery, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Korea
| | - Byong-Yong Hwang
- Department of Physical Therapy, Yong-In University College of Health & Welfare, Korea
| | - Young Jin Song
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Korea
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Villa RF, Ferrari F, Gorini A, Brunello N, Tascedda F. Effect of desipramine and fluoxetine on energy metabolism of cerebral mitochondria. Neuroscience 2016; 330:326-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.05.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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10
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Ferrari F, Gorini A, Villa RF. Functional proteomics of synaptic plasma membrane ATP-ases of rat hippocampus: Effect of l-acetylcarnitine and relationships with Dementia and Depression pathophysiology. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 756:67-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Revised: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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11
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Ferrari F, Gorini A, Villa RF. Energy Metabolism of Synaptosomes from Different Neuronal Systems of Rat Cerebellum During Aging: A Functional Proteomic Characterization. Neurochem Res 2014; 40:172-85. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-014-1482-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Revised: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Perera G, Khondoker M, Broadbent M, Breen G, Stewart R. Factors associated with response to acetylcholinesterase inhibition in dementia: a cohort study from a secondary mental health care case register in london. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109484. [PMID: 25411838 PMCID: PMC4239015 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) are widely used to delay cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. Observational studies in routine clinical practice have shown cognitive improvement in some groups of patients receiving these agents but longitudinal trajectories before and after AChEI initiation have not previously been considered. OBJECTIVES To compare trajectories of cognitive function before and after AChEI initiation and investigate predictors of these differences. METHOD A retrospective longitudinal study was constructed using data from 2460 patients who received AChEIs and who had routine data on cognitive function (Mini-Mental State Examination; MMSE) before and after AChEI initiation. Longitudinal MMSE change was modelled using three-piece linear mixed models with the following segments: 0-12 months prior to AChEI initiation, 0-6 months and 6-36 months after initiation. RESULTS MMSE decline was reversed (in that the slope was improved by an average 4.2 units per year, 95% CI 3.5-4.8) during the 6-month period following AChEI initiation compared with the slope in the one year period before AChEI initiation. The slope in the period from 6-36 months following AChEI initiation returned to the pre-initiation downward trajectory. The differences in slopes in the 1 year period prior to AChEI initiation and in the 6 months after initiation were smaller among those with higher MMSE scores at the time of AChEI initiation, among those who received a vascular dementia diagnosis at any point, and among those receiving antipsychotic agents. CONCLUSION In this naturalistic observational study, changes in cognitive trajectories around AChEI initiation were similar to those reported in randomised controlled trials. The magnitude of the difference in slopes between the 1 year period prior to AChEI initiation and the 6 month period after AChEI initiation was related to level of cognitive function at treatment initiation, vascular comorbidity and antipsychotic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayan Perera
- King's College London (Institute of Psychiatry), London, United Kingdom
| | - Mizanur Khondoker
- King's College London (Institute of Psychiatry), London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Broadbent
- South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gerome Breen
- King's College London (Institute of Psychiatry), London, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Stewart
- King's College London (Institute of Psychiatry), London, United Kingdom
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Lam SM, Wang Y, Duan X, Wenk MR, Kalaria RN, Chen CP, Lai MKP, Shui G. Brain lipidomes of subcortical ischemic vascular dementia and mixed dementia. Neurobiol Aging 2014; 35:2369-81. [PMID: 24684787 PMCID: PMC4099521 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Despite its importance as the leading cause of vascular dementia, the primary pathogenic mechanisms in subcortical ischemic vascular dementia (SIVD) have remained elusive. Because of the lack of approved therapeutic agents for SIVD, there is a pressing need to identify novel therapeutic targets. Comparative lipidomic analyses of SIVD and mixed dementia (i.e., SIVD and Alzheimer's disease, MixD) may also confer new insights pertaining to the possible interaction between neurodegenerative and vascular mechanisms in the pathogenesis of dementia. Liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry was used to comprehensively analyze the lipidomes of white and gray matter from the temporal cortex of nondemented controls, SIVD, and MixD subjects. Detailed molecular profiles highlighted the pathologic relevance of gray matter sphingolipid fatty acyl chain heterogeneity in dementia. In addition, the levels of sulfatides and lysobisphosphatidic acids were progressively increased in the temporal cortex gray matter from control to SIVD to MixD. White matter phospholipid profiles indicated possible adaptive mechanisms (i.e., increased unsaturation) to chronic ischemia in SIVD and elevated membrane degradation in MixD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sin Man Lam
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yuting Wang
- NGS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xinrui Duan
- Life Science Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Markus R Wenk
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Department of Biochemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Raj N Kalaria
- Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Christopher P Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Memory, Aging and Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore
| | - Mitchell K P Lai
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Memory, Aging and Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore
| | - Guanghou Shui
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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Vance DE, Fazeli PL, Dodson JE, Ackerman M, Talley M, Appel SJ. The synergistic effects of HIV, diabetes, and aging on cognition: implications for practice and research. J Neurosci Nurs 2014; 46:292-305. [PMID: 25099061 PMCID: PMC4156544 DOI: 10.1097/jnn.0000000000000074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Thanks to highly active antiretroviral therapy, many people infected with HIV will likely live into old age. Although this is a welcome prognosis, new issues are emerging that may complicate the ability to successfully age in this clinical population. HIV and aging independently are related to cognitive impairments, so there are concerns that those aging with HIV may be more at risk of such cognitive impairments. Moreover, highly active antiretroviral therapy itself can create metabolic disorders, such as prediabetes and/or frank type 2 diabetes, which have also been linked to poorer cognitive functioning. Thus, concerns increase that, as people age with HIV and develop comorbid metabolic disorders that may lead to type 2 diabetes, they will be at triple risk of developing cognitive impairments that can impair everyday functioning and reduce quality of life. This article explores these issues and provides implications for practice and research.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E. Vance
- School of Nursing, NB 456, 1701 University Boulevard, University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB), Birmingham, AL 35294-1210, Office: 205-934-7589, Fax: 205-996-7183
| | - Pariya L. Fazeli
- HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program 220 Dickinson Street, Suite B (8231), University of California, San Diego, CA 92103, Office: 619-543-6584
| | - Joan E. Dodson
- Department of Psychology & Center for Translational Research in Aging and Mobility, Holly Mears Building, Room 130, 924 19th Street South, University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB), Birmingham, AL 35294, Office: 205-934-2551
| | - Michelle Ackerman
- Department of Psychology, University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB), Birmingham AL 35294, Office: 334-467-8864
| | - Michele Talley
- School of Nursing, NB 543, 1701 University Boulevard, University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB), Birmingham, AL 35294, Office: 205-934-6647
| | - Susan J. Appel
- Capstone College of Nursing, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL PO Box 870358, Tuscaloosa, AL 3578-0358, Office: 205-348-1026
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Xi Y, Wang M, Zhang W, Bai M, Du Y, Zhang Z, Li Z, Miao J. Neuronal damage, central cholinergic dysfunction and oxidative damage correlate with cognitive deficits in rats with chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2013; 109:7-19. [PMID: 24315928 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2013.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion has been identified to be a risk factor for cognitive decline in aging, vascular dementia, and Alzheimer's disease. Substantial evidence has shown that chronic cerebral hypoperfusion may cause cognitive impairment, but the underlying neurobiological mechanism is poorly understood so far. In this study, we used a rat model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion by permanent bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) to investigate the alterations of neuronal damage, glial activation oxidative stress and central cholinergic dysfunction, and their causal relationship with the cognitive deficits induced by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. We found that BCCAO rats exhibited spatial learning and memory impairments and working memory dysfunction 12 weeks after BCCAO compared with sham-operated rats, simultaneously accompanied by significantly increased neuronal damage and glial cell activation in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Twelve weeks of BCCAO treatment in rats resulted in central cholinergic dysfunction and increased oxidative damage compared with sham-operated rats. Correlational analyses revealed that spatial learning and memory impairments and working memory dysfunction were significantly correlated with the measures of neuronal damage, central cholinergic dysfunction and oxidative damage in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of rats with BCCAO. Moreover, the measures of neuronal damage and central cholinergic dysfunction were significantly correlated with the indexes of oxidative damage in rats with BCCAO. Collectively, this study provides novel evidence that neuronal damage and central cholinergic dysfunction is likely due to increased oxidative stress under the condition of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Furthermore, the results of the present study suggest that neuronal damage, central cholinergic dysfunction and oxidative damage in the brain following the reduction of cerebral blood flow could be involved in cognitive deficits induced by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Xi
- Department of Neurology, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China
| | - Man Wang
- Department of Neurology, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China; Institute of Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China
| | - Miao Bai
- Department of Neurology, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China; Institute of Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China
| | - Ying Du
- Department of Neurology, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China; Institute of Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China
| | - Zhuo Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China
| | - Zhuyi Li
- Department of Neurology, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China; Institute of Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China.
| | - Jianting Miao
- Department of Neurology, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province 710038, China.
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16
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Villa RF, Ferrari F, Gorini A. Functional Proteomics Related to Energy Metabolism of Synaptosomes from Different Neuronal Systems of Rat Hippocampus during Aging. J Proteome Res 2013; 12:5422-35. [DOI: 10.1021/pr400834g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Roberto F. Villa
- Department of Biology and
Biotechnology - Laboratory of Pharmacology and Molecular Medicine
of Central Nervous System, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata, 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Federica Ferrari
- Department of Biology and
Biotechnology - Laboratory of Pharmacology and Molecular Medicine
of Central Nervous System, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata, 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Antonella Gorini
- Department of Biology and
Biotechnology - Laboratory of Pharmacology and Molecular Medicine
of Central Nervous System, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata, 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
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17
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Energy metabolism of cerebral mitochondria during aging, ischemia and post-ischemic recovery assessed by functional proteomics of enzymes. Neurochem Int 2013; 63:765-81. [PMID: 24128653 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2013] [Revised: 09/13/2013] [Accepted: 10/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability, but most of the therapeutic approaches failed in clinical trials. The energy metabolism alterations, due to marked ATP decline, are strongly related to stroke and, at present, their physiopathological roles are not fully understood. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of aging on ischemia-induced changes in energy mitochondrial transduction and the consequences on overall brain energy metabolism in an in vivo experimental model of complete cerebral ischemia of 15min duration and during post-ischemic recirculation after 1, 24, 48, 72 and 96h, in 1year "adult" and 2year-old "aged" rats. The maximum rate (Vmax) of citrate synthase, malate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase for Krebs' cycle; NADH-cytochrome c reductase and cytochrome oxidase for electron transfer chain (ETC) were assayed in non-synaptic "free" mitochondria and in two populations of intra-synaptic mitochondria, i.e., "light" and "heavy" mitochondria. The catalytic activities of enzymes markedly differ according to: (a) mitochondrial type (non-synaptic, intra-synaptic), (b) age, (c) acute effects of ischemia and (d) post-ischemic recirculation at different times. Enzyme activities changes are injury maturation events and strictly reflect the bioenergetic state of the tissue in each specific experimental condition respect to the energy demand, as shown by the comparative evaluation of the energy-linked metabolites and substrates content. Remarkably, recovery of mitochondrial function was more difficult for intra-synaptic mitochondria in "aged" rats, but enzyme activities of energy metabolism tended to normalize in all mitochondrial populations after 96h of recirculation. This observation is relevant for Therapy, indicating that mitochondrial enzymes may be important metabolic factors for the responsiveness of ischemic penumbra towards the restore of cerebral functions.
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18
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Villa R, Ferrari F, Gorini A. ATP-ases of synaptic plasma membranes in striatum: Enzymatic systems for synapses functionality by in vivo administration of l-acetylcarnitine in relation to Parkinson’s Disease. Neuroscience 2013; 248:414-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Abstract
The effects of brain AngII (angiotensin II) depend on AT(1) receptor (AngII type 1 receptor) stimulation and include regulation of cerebrovascular flow, autonomic and hormonal systems, stress, innate immune response and behaviour. Excessive brain AT(1) receptor activity associates with hypertension and heart failure, brain ischaemia, abnormal stress responses, blood-brain barrier breakdown and inflammation. These are risk factors leading to neuronal injury, the incidence and progression of neurodegerative, mood and traumatic brain disorders, and cognitive decline. In rodents, ARBs (AT(1) receptor blockers) ameliorate stress-induced disorders, anxiety and depression, protect cerebral blood flow during stroke, decrease brain inflammation and amyloid-β neurotoxicity and reduce traumatic brain injury. Direct anti-inflammatory protective effects, demonstrated in cultured microglia, cerebrovascular endothelial cells, neurons and human circulating monocytes, may result not only in AT(1) receptor blockade, but also from PPARγ (peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor γ) stimulation. Controlled clinical studies indicate that ARBs protect cognition after stroke and during aging, and cohort analyses reveal that these compounds significantly reduce the incidence and progression of Alzheimer's disease. ARBs are commonly used for the therapy of hypertension, diabetes and stroke, but have not been studied in the context of neurodegenerative, mood or traumatic brain disorders, conditions lacking effective therapy. These compounds are well-tolerated pleiotropic neuroprotective agents with additional beneficial cardiovascular and metabolic profiles, and their use in central nervous system disorders offers a novel therapeutic approach of immediate translational value. ARBs should be tested for the prevention and therapy of neurodegenerative disorders, in particular Alzheimer's disease, affective disorders, such as co-morbid cardiovascular disease and depression, and traumatic brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Saavedra
- Section on Pharmacology, Division of Intramural Research Programs, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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20
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Villa RF, Ferrari F, Gorini A. Effect of CDP-choline on age-dependent modifications of energy- and glutamate-linked enzyme activities in synaptic and non-synaptic mitochondria from rat cerebral cortex. Neurochem Int 2012; 61:1424-32. [PMID: 23099360 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2012.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2012] [Revised: 09/14/2012] [Accepted: 10/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The effect of aging and CDP-choline treatment (20 mg kg⁻¹ body weight i.p. for 28 days) on the maximal rates (V(max)) of representative mitochondrial enzyme activities related to Krebs' cycle (citrate synthase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase), glutamate and related amino acid metabolism (glutamate dehydrogenase, glutamate-oxaloacetate- and glutamate-pyruvate transaminases) were evaluated in non-synaptic and intra-synaptic "light" and "heavy" mitochondria from frontal cerebral cortex of male Wistar rats aged 4, 12, 18 and 24 months. During aging, enzyme activities vary in a complex way respect to the type of mitochondria, i.e. non-synaptic and intra-synaptic. This micro-heterogeneity is an important factor, because energy-related mitochondrial enzyme catalytic properties cause metabolic modifications of physiopathological significance in cerebral tissue in vivo, also discriminating pre- and post-synaptic sites of action for drugs and affecting tissue responsiveness to noxious stimuli. Results show that CDP-choline in vivo treatment enhances cerebral energy metabolism selectively at 18 months, specifically modifying enzyme catalytic activities in non-synaptic and intra-synaptic "light" mitochondrial sub-populations. This confirms that the observed changes in enzyme catalytic activities during aging reflect the bioenergetic state at each single age and the corresponding energy requirements, further proving that in vivo drug treatment is able to interfere with the neuronal energy metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Federico Villa
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Molecular Medicine of Central Nervous System, Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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21
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Sharma B, Singh N. Defensive effect of natrium diethyldithiocarbamate trihydrate (NDDCT) and lisinopril in DOCA-salt hypertension-induced vascular dementia in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 223:307-17. [PMID: 22526544 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2718-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2011] [Accepted: 04/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Vascular dementia and hypertension are increasing day by day, with a high degree of co-occurrence. Tremendous amount of research work is required so that new pharmacological agents may be identified for their appropriate therapeutic utility to combat different dementing disorders. OBJECTIVES This study investigates the effect of natrium diethyldithiocarbamate trihydrate (NDDCT), a nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) inhibitor, as well as lisinopril, an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor, on deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA) hypertension-induced vascular dementia in rats. METHODS DOCA was used to induce hypertension and associated vascular dementia. Morris water maze (MWM) was used for testing learning and memory. Endothelial function was assessed by acetylcholine-induced endothelium-dependent relaxation of aortic strips. Different biochemical estimations were used to assess oxidative stress (aortic superoxide anion, serum and brain thiobarbituric acid reactive species, and brain glutathione), nitric oxide levels (serum nitrite/nitrate), and cholinergic activity (brain acetyl cholinesterase activity). RESULTS DOCA treatment significantly raised the mean arterial blood pressure of rats, and these hypertensive rats performed poorly on MWM, reflecting impairment of learning and memory. DOCA treatment also impaired vascular endothelial function and different biochemical parameters. Treatments of NDDCT as well as lisinopril significantly attenuated DOCA hypertension-induced impairment of learning and memory, endothelial dysfunction, and changes in various biochemical levels. CONCLUSIONS DOCA-salt hypertension induces vascular dementia in rats. NF-κB as well as ACE inhibitors may be considered as potential pharmacological agents for the management of hypertension-induced vascular dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhupesh Sharma
- Pharmacology Division, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Faculty of Medicine, Punjabi University, Patiala, 147002 Punjab, India.
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22
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Villa RF, Ferrari F, Gorini A. Energy metabolism of rat cerebral cortex, hypothalamus and hypophysis during ageing. Neuroscience 2012; 227:55-66. [PMID: 23022213 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.09.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Revised: 09/07/2012] [Accepted: 09/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Ageing is one of the main risk factors for brain disorders. According to the neuroendocrine theory, ageing modifies the sensitivity of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis to homoeostatic signals coming from the cerebral cortex. The relationships between the energy metabolism of these areas have not been considered yet, in particular with respect to ageing. For these reasons, this study was undertaken to systematically investigate in female Sprague-Dawley rats aged 4, 6, 12, 18, 24, 28 months and in 4-month-old male ones, the catalytic properties of energy-linked enzymes of the Krebs' cycle, electron transport chain, glutamate and related amino acids on different mitochondrial subpopulations, i.e. non-synaptic perikaryal and intra-synaptic (two types) mitochondria. The biochemical enzymatic pattern of these mitochondria shows different expression of the above-mentioned enzymatic activities in the investigated brain areas, including frontal cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, hypothalamus and hypophysis. The study shows that: (i) the energy metabolism of the frontal cerebral cortex is poorly affected by physiological ageing; (ii) the biochemical machinery of non-synaptic perikaryal mitochondria is differently expressed in the considered brain areas; (iii) at 4-6 months, hypothalamus and hypophysis possess lower oxidative metabolism with respect to the frontal cerebral cortex while (iv), during ageing, the opposite situation occurs. We hypothesised that these metabolic modifications likely try to grant HPA functionality in response to the incoming external stress stimuli increased during ageing. It is particularly notable that age-related changes in brain bioenergetics and in mitochondrial functionality may be considered as remarkable factors during physiological ageing and should play important roles in predisposing the brain to physiopathological events, tightly related to molecular mechanisms evoked for pharmacological treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- R F Villa
- University of Pavia, Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Molecular Medicine of Central Nervous System, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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Experimental hypertension induced vascular dementia: Pharmacological, biochemical and behavioral recuperation by angiotensin receptor blocker and acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2012; 102:101-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2012.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2011] [Revised: 03/25/2012] [Accepted: 03/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Protein markers for the differential diagnosis of vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PROTEOMICS 2012; 2012:824024. [PMID: 22701795 PMCID: PMC3373063 DOI: 10.1155/2012/824024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Revised: 03/11/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia found in all human populations worldwide, while vascular dementia (VaD) is the second most common form of dementia. New biomarkers for early and specific diagnosis of AD and VaD are needed to achieve greater insight into changes occurring in the brain and direct therapeutic strategies. The objective of this explorative study was to discover candidate protein biomarkers for the differential diagnosis between VaD and AD. Surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization (SELDI) TOF-MS was used to differentially profile proteins and peptides in CSF samples from 28 AD patients and 21 patients with VaD. A combination of univariate (Kruskal-Wallis) and multivariate (independent component analysis) statistical approaches produced a list of 27 proteins and peptides that could differentiate between VaD and AD. These markers represent various physiological processes, such as protein degradation (ubiquitin), protease inhibition (cystatin C and alpha-1-antichymoptrypsin), and inflammation (C3a and C4a) that are known to be represented in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Uslu S, Akarkarasu ZE, Ozbabalik D, Ozkan S, Colak O, Demirkan ES, Ozkiris A, Demirustu C, Alatas O. Levels of amyloid beta-42, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Neurochem Res 2012; 37:1554-9. [PMID: 22437436 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-012-0750-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2011] [Revised: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid β42 (Aβ42) and proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) have been suggested to contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia (VaD). Our aim was to examine whether the changes in these parameters would be able to discriminate the patients with AD from those with VaD and from healthy individuals. We have analyzed the levels of Aβ42, IL-6 and TNF-α in the serum of newly diagnosed 28 AD patients, 16 VaD patients and 26 healthy non-demented controls. We also investigated whether there is an association between Aβ42, IL-6 and TNF-α levels and mini-mental state examination (MMSE) scores and body mass indexes (BMI) of patients. Our data showed a significant decrease in serum Aβ-42 levels in AD patients compared to VaD patients and controls. Levels of IL-6 and TNF-α were not different between AD patients, VaD patients and controls. We observed a correlation between Aβ-42 levels and MMSE scores and BMI levels in both AD and VaD patients. However, Aβ-42 levels were not correlated with IL-6 and TNF-α levels. Significantly lower levels of Aβ42 found in the serum of AD patients than that of VaD patients and controls suggests that it can be a specific biochemical marker for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sema Uslu
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Eskişehir Osmangazi, Eskisehir, Turkey.
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Enciu AM, Constantinescu SN, Popescu LM, Mureşanu DF, Popescu BO. Neurobiology of vascular dementia. J Aging Res 2011; 2011:401604. [PMID: 21876809 PMCID: PMC3160011 DOI: 10.4061/2011/401604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Revised: 06/27/2011] [Accepted: 06/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Vascular dementia is, in its current conceptual form, a distinct type of dementia with a spectrum of specific clinical and pathophysiological features. However, in a very large majority of cases, these alterations occur in an already aged brain, characterized by a milieu of cellular and molecular events common for different neurodegenerative diseases. The cell signaling defects and molecular dyshomeostasis might lead to neuronal malfunction prior to the death of neurons and the alteration of neuronal networks. In the present paper, we explore some of the molecular mechanisms underlying brain malfunction triggered by cerebrovascular disease and risk factors. We suggest that, in the age of genetic investigation and molecular diagnosis, the concept of vascular dementia needs a new approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana-Maria Enciu
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 8 Eroilor Sanitari, Sector 5, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
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