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Lee J, Choi J, Feng L, Yu J, Zheng Y, Zhang Q, Lin YT, Sah S, Gu Y, Zhang S, Cosgrove DJ, Kim SH. Regiospecific Cellulose Orientation and Anisotropic Mechanical Property in Plant Cell Walls. Biomacromolecules 2023; 24:4759-4770. [PMID: 37704189 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.3c00538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose microfibrils (CMFs) are a major load-bearing component in plant cell walls. Thus, their structures have been studied extensively with spectroscopic and microscopic characterization methods, but the findings from these two approaches were inconsistent, which hampers the mechanistic understanding of cell wall mechanics. Here, we report the regiospecific assembly of CMFs in the periclinal wall of plant epidermal cells. Using sum frequency generation spectroscopic imaging, we found that CMFs are highly aligned in the cell edge region where two cells form a junction, whereas they are mostly isotropic on average throughout the wall thickness in the flat face region of the epidermal cell. This subcellular-level heterogeneity in the CMF alignment provided a new perspective on tissue-level anisotropy in the tensile modulus of cell wall materials. This finding also has resolved a previous contradiction between the spectroscopic and microscopic imaging studies, which paves a foundation for better understanding of the cell wall architecture, especially structure-geometry relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongcheol Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Juseok Choi
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Luyi Feng
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics and Bioengineering, Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Jingyi Yu
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Yunzhen Zheng
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Yen-Ting Lin
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Saroj Sah
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Ying Gu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Sulin Zhang
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics and Bioengineering, Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Seong H Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
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Rongpipi S, Barnes WJ, Siemianowski O, Del Mundo JT, Wang C, Freychet G, Zhernenkov M, Anderson CT, Gomez EW, Gomez ED. Measuring calcium content in plants using NEXAFS spectroscopy. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1212126. [PMID: 37662163 PMCID: PMC10468975 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1212126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Calcium is important for the growth and development of plants. It serves crucial functions in cell wall and cell membrane structure and serves as a secondary messenger in signaling pathways relevant to nutrient and immunity responses. Thus, measuring calcium levels in plants is important for studies of plant biology and for technology development in food, agriculture, energy, and forest industries. Often, calcium in plants has been measured through techniques such as atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and electrophysiology. These techniques, however, require large sample sizes, chemical extraction of samples or have limited spatial resolution. Here, we used near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy at the calcium L- and K-edges to measure the calcium to carbon mass ratio with spatial resolution in plant samples without requiring chemical extraction or large sample sizes. We demonstrate that the integrated absorbance at the calcium L-edge and the edge jump in the fluorescence yield at the calcium K-edge can be used to quantify the calcium content as the calcium mass fraction, and validate this approach with onion epidermal peels and ICP-MS. We also used NEXAFS to estimate the calcium mass ratio in hypocotyls of a model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, which has a cell wall composition that is similar to that of onion epidermal peels. These results show that NEXAFS spectroscopy performed at the calcium edge provides an approach to quantify calcium levels within plants, which is crucial for understanding plant physiology and advancing plant-based materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sintu Rongpipi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - William J. Barnes
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Oskar Siemianowski
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Joshua T. Del Mundo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Cheng Wang
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Guillaume Freychet
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, United States
| | - Mikhail Zhernenkov
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, United States
| | - Charles T. Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Esther W. Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Enrique D. Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
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Del Mundo JT, Rongpipi S, Yang H, Ye D, Kiemle SN, Moffitt SL, Troxel CL, Toney MF, Zhu C, Kubicki JD, Cosgrove DJ, Gomez EW, Gomez ED. Grazing-incidence diffraction reveals cellulose and pectin organization in hydrated plant primary cell wall. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5421. [PMID: 37012389 PMCID: PMC10070456 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32505-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary cell wall is highly hydrated in its native state, yet many structural studies have been conducted on dried samples. Here, we use grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) with a humidity chamber, which enhances scattering and the signal-to-noise ratio while keeping outer onion epidermal peels hydrated, to examine cell wall properties. GIWAXS of hydrated and dried onion reveals that the cellulose ([Formula: see text]) lattice spacing decreases slightly upon drying, while the (200) lattice parameters are unchanged. Additionally, the ([Formula: see text]) diffraction intensity increases relative to (200). Density functional theory models of hydrated and dry cellulose microfibrils corroborate changes in crystalline properties upon drying. GIWAXS also reveals a peak that we attribute to pectin chain aggregation. We speculate that dehydration perturbs the hydrogen bonding network within cellulose crystals and collapses the pectin network without affecting the lateral distribution of pectin chain aggregates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua T Del Mundo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Sintu Rongpipi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Hui Yang
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Dan Ye
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Sarah N Kiemle
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | | | - Charles L Troxel
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - Michael F Toney
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Chenhui Zhu
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - James D Kubicki
- Department of Earth, Environmental and Resource Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, 79968, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Esther W Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| | - Enrique D Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
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Samalova M, Gahurova E, Hejatko J. Expansin-mediated developmental and adaptive responses: A matter of cell wall biomechanics? QUANTITATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 3:e11. [PMID: 37077967 PMCID: PMC10095946 DOI: 10.1017/qpb.2022.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Biomechanical properties of the cell wall (CW) are important for many developmental and adaptive responses in plants. Expansins were shown to mediate pH-dependent CW enlargement via a process called CW loosening. Here, we provide a brief overview of expansin occurrence in plant and non-plant species, their structure and mode of action including the role of hormone-regulated CW acidification in the control of expansin activity. We depict the historical as well as recent CW models, discuss the role of expansins in the CW biomechanics and address the developmental importance of expansin-regulated CW loosening in cell elongation and new primordia formation. We summarise the data published so far on the role of expansins in the abiotic stress response as well as the rather scarce evidence and hypotheses on the possible mechanisms underlying expansin-mediated abiotic stress resistance. Finally, we wrap it up by highlighting possible future directions in expansin research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marketa Samalova
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Evelina Gahurova
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biotechnological Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Hejatko
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biotechnological Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
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Del Mundo JT, Rongpipi S, Gomez ED, Gomez EW. Characterization of biological materials with soft X-ray scattering. Methods Enzymol 2022; 677:357-383. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2022.08.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Zhang Y, Yu J, Wang X, Durachko DM, Zhang S, Cosgrove DJ. Molecular insights into the complex mechanics of plant epidermal cell walls. Science 2021; 372:706-711. [PMID: 33986175 DOI: 10.1126/science.abf2824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Plants have evolved complex nanofibril-based cell walls to meet diverse biological and physical constraints. How strength and extensibility emerge from the nanoscale-to-mesoscale organization of growing cell walls has long been unresolved. We sought to clarify the mechanical roles of cellulose and matrix polysaccharides by developing a coarse-grained model based on polymer physics that recapitulates aspects of assembly and tensile mechanics of epidermal cell walls. Simple noncovalent binding interactions in the model generate bundled cellulose networks resembling that of primary cell walls and possessing stress-dependent elasticity, stiffening, and plasticity beyond a yield threshold. Plasticity originates from fibril-fibril sliding in aligned cellulose networks. This physical model provides quantitative insight into fundamental questions of plant mechanobiology and reveals design principles of biomaterials that combine stiffness with yielding and extensibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Zhang
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Jingyi Yu
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Xuan Wang
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Daniel M Durachko
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Sulin Zhang
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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Wilson LA, Deligey F, Wang T, Cosgrove DJ. Saccharide analysis of onion outer epidermal walls. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2021; 14:66. [PMID: 33722273 PMCID: PMC7962260 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-021-01923-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidermal cell walls have special structural and biological roles in the life of the plant. Typically they are multi-ply structures encrusted with waxes and cutin which protect the plant from dehydration and pathogen attack. These characteristics may also reduce chemical and enzymatic deconstruction of the wall for sugar analysis and conversion to biofuels. We have assessed the saccharide composition of the outer epidermal wall of onion scales with different analytical methods. This wall is a particularly useful model for cell wall imaging and mechanics. RESULTS Epidermal walls were depolymerized by acidic methanolysis combined with 2M trifluoracetic acid hydrolysis and the resultant sugars were analyzed by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD). Total sugar yields based on wall dry weight were low (53%). Removal of waxes with chloroform increased the sugar yields to 73% and enzymatic digestion did not improve these yields. Analysis by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) of per-O-trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives of the sugar methyl glycosides produced by acidic methanolysis gave a high yield for galacturonic acid (GalA) but glucose (Glc) was severely reduced. In a complementary fashion, GC/MS analysis of methyl alditols produced by permethylation gave substantial yields for glucose and other neutral sugars, but GalA was severely reduced. Analysis of the walls by 13C solid-state NMR confirmed and extended these results and revealed 15% lipid content after chloroform extraction (potentially cutin and unextractable waxes). CONCLUSIONS Although exact values vary with the analytical method, our best estimate is that polysaccharide in the outer epidermal wall of onion scales is comprised of homogalacturonan (~ 50%), cellulose (~ 20%), galactan (~ 10%), xyloglucan (~ 10%) and smaller amounts of other polysaccharides. Low yields of specific monosaccharides by some methods may be exaggerated in epidermal walls impregnated with waxes and cutin and call for cautious interpretation of the results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza A Wilson
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| | - Fabien Deligey
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, 133 Choppin Hall, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
| | - Tuo Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, 133 Choppin Hall, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
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Zhang T, Tang H, Vavylonis D, Cosgrove DJ. Disentangling loosening from softening: insights into primary cell wall structure. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 100:1101-1117. [PMID: 31469935 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
How cell wall elasticity, plasticity, and time-dependent extension (creep) relate to one another, to plant cell wall structure and to cell growth remain unsettled topics. To examine these issues without the complexities of living tissues, we treated cell-free strips of onion epidermal walls with various enzymes and other agents to assess which polysaccharides bear mechanical forces in-plane and out-of-plane of the cell wall. This information is critical for integrating concepts of wall structure, wall material properties, tissue mechanics and mechanisms of cell growth. With atomic force microscopy we also monitored real-time changes in the wall surface during treatments. Driselase, a potent cocktail of wall-degrading enzymes, removed cellulose microfibrils in superficial lamellae sequentially, layer-by-layer, and softened the wall (reduced its mechanical stiffness), yet did not induce wall loosening (creep). In contrast Cel12A, a bifunctional xyloglucanase/cellulase, induced creep with only subtle changes in wall appearance. Both Driselase and Cel12A increased the tensile compliance, but differently for elastic and plastic components. Homogalacturonan solubilization by pectate lyase and calcium chelation greatly increased the indentation compliance without changing tensile compliances. Acidic buffer induced rapid cell wall creep via endogenous α-expansins, with negligible effects on wall compliances. We conclude that these various wall properties are not tightly coupled and therefore reflect distinctive aspects of wall structure. Cross-lamellate networks of cellulose microfibrils influenced creep and tensile stiffness whereas homogalacturonan influenced indentation mechanics. This information is crucial for constructing realistic molecular models that define how wall mechanics and growth depend on primary cell wall structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Zhang
- Department of Biology and Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA
| | - Haosu Tang
- Department of Physics, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 18015, USA
| | - Dimitrios Vavylonis
- Department of Physics, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 18015, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology and Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA
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Cosgrove DJ. Nanoscale structure, mechanics and growth of epidermal cell walls. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 46:77-86. [PMID: 30142487 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2018.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
This article briefly reviews recent advances in nano-scale and micro-scale assessments of primary cell wall structure, mechanical behaviors and expansive growth. Cellulose microfibrils have hydrophobic and hydrophilic faces which may selectively bind different matrix polysaccharides and adjacent microfibrils. These distinctive binding interactions may guide partially aligned cellulose microfibrils in primary cell walls to form a planar, load-bearing network within each lamella of polylamellate walls. Consideration of expansive growth of cross-lamellate walls leads to a surprising inference: side-by-side sliding of microfibrils may be a key rate-limiting physical step, potentially targeted by specific wall loosening agents. Atomic force microscopy shows different patterns of microfibril movement during force-driven extension versus enzymatic loosening. Consequently, simulations of cell growth as elastic deformation of isotropic cell walls may need to be augmented to incorporate the distinctive behavior of growing cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16803, USA.
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Ye D, Kiemle SN, Rongpipi S, Wang X, Wang C, Cosgrove DJ, Gomez EW, Gomez ED. Resonant soft X-ray scattering reveals cellulose microfibril spacing in plant primary cell walls. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12449. [PMID: 30127533 PMCID: PMC6102304 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31024-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellulose microfibrils are crucial for many of the remarkable mechanical properties of primary cell walls. Nevertheless, many structural features of cellulose microfibril organization in cell walls are not yet fully described. Microscopy techniques provide direct visualization of cell wall organization, and quantification of some aspects of wall microstructure is possible through image processing. Complementary to microscopy techniques, scattering yields structural information in reciprocal space over large sample areas. Using the onion epidermal wall as a model system, we introduce resonant soft X-ray scattering (RSoXS) to directly quantify the average interfibril spacing. Tuning the X-ray energy to the calcium L-edge enhances the contrast between cellulose and pectin due to the localization of calcium ions to homogalacturonan in the pectin matrix. As a consequence, RSoXS profiles reveal an average center-to-center distance between cellulose microfibrils or microfibril bundles of about 20 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Ye
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Sarah N Kiemle
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Sintu Rongpipi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Xuan Wang
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Cheng Wang
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA, 94720, United States
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Esther W Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States.
| | - Enrique D Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States.
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States.
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