The therapeutic use of radon: a biomedical treatment in Europe; an "alternative" remedy in the United States

Influence of the natural radon radiation on the spread of the COVID 19 pandemic

The statistics of COVID-19 accumulated in Ukraine show areas with a significantly lower incidence of diseases. The purpose of the study was to identify factors that could influence the pattern of the pandemic in a particular area. Within the study it was assumed that the level of health care is approximately the same throughout the country. Population density was considered the main factor influencing the dynamics of the spread of infection. To reduce the impact of changes in population density across regions, it was normalized by the average population density in the country. The normalization of statistics for the country resulted in a model in the form of a linear relationship between the normalized values of the number of COVID-19 cases in the region and the size of the region. Subsequent analysis of the graphical data made it possible to identify four regions with the lowest incidence of COVID-19. The geographical proximity of these regions Dnipro, Kherson, Vinnytsia and Kirovograd, indicates the presence of a common factor for them, not typical for the rest of Ukraine. Such a factor may be the location of 83% of Ukraine's uranium deposits in the territories around Kirovohrad. Radon is one of the decay products of uranium, so the population of these areas may experience increased exposure to radon. This noble gas has more than a century of medical use, in particular for pulmonary diseases, although there is still no consensus about its effectiveness and side effects. Considering that COVID-19 was often complicated by pulmonary diseases, it can be assumed that the geological specificity of these four regions of Ukraine had an impact on the course of the COVID-19 pandemic in their territories. The study findings are important in terms of further COVID-19 research and prevention strategies.

222Rn and 226Ra concentrations in selected shallow circulation groundwaters from the Fore-Sudetic Monocline area

Natural radioactive isotopes occur in various components of the natural environment, including groundwater. The general population, not always aware of possible threats, can use its resources. The activity concentration of some of the radioactive isotopes should be monitored, especially in those intakes from which it is possible to obtain water for human consumption, e.g. in domestic wells. The conducted research was innovative due to the fact that in many countries, including Poland, there are no regulations on waters exploited from home wells using as a drinking water source. As the groundwaters from this area have not been examined for radon (²²²Rn) and radium (²²⁶Ra) occurrence yet, the goal of this research was to perform screening tests in this part of the Fore-Sudetic Monocline. For this purpose, the authors have measured the concentration of ²²²Rn and ²²⁶Ra activity in groundwater collected from this geological unit located in south-western Poland. ²²²Rn and ²²⁶Ra occurrence was researched, and specific electrolytic conductivity, redox potential, pH and temperature were measured in 52 groundwater samples. ²²²Rn activity concentration ranged from 0.18 to 19.78 Bq/dm³. Only in three cases, ²²⁶Ra activity concentration reached a value above the lower detection limit of the applied method, i.e. 0.05 Bq/dm³ (max. 0.77 Bq/dm³). The authors present completely new data on the occurrence of these radioactive isotopes in the waters of the first aquifer in the Fore-Sudetic Monocline, which is not without significance for the health of consumers of these waters.

Radon groundwater in a radon-prone area: possible uses and problems: an example from SW part of Kłodzko Valley, Sudetes, SW Poland

The paper describes research aimed at expanding scientific knowledge of radioactive isotope ²²²Rn occurrence in groundwaters flowing in crystalline rocks, including its spatial and temporal changes. The research, conducted in an area characterized by medium radon potential, was intended to determine the values of ²²²Rn activity concentration in groundwater in this type of areas. The ²²²Rn activity concentration in groundwaters discharged from investigated springs oscillated between 35.3 and 272.0 Bq/L. The authors discovered possible prevalence of radon groundwaters in areas with medium radon potential, which is the reason why all groundwaters intended for human consumption or household use in such areas should be subject to obligatory monitoring of ²²²Rn activity concentration. In the event of identifying occurrence of waters with ²²²Rn activity concentration of at least 100 Bq/L, their purification by removing radon is necessary before they are supplied to a water distribution network. At the same time, the research area can be regarded as an area with potentially medicinal radon water occurrence. Therefore, in areas with medium radon potential, groundwaters which are not suitable as a source of drinking water due to very high ²²²Rn activity concentration in them can be used as medicinal radon waters in therapeutic treatments.

Pilot groundwater radon mapping and the assessment of health risk from heavy metals in drinking water of southwest, Nigeria

Radon and heavy metals are sources of groundwater pollution and are identified as potential carcinogens. Southwest Nigeria's populace mostly relies on groundwater source for drinking. This study aims to map radon distribution in groundwater of southwest Nigeria and to determine the health risk of radon and heavy metal in drinking water. Radon concentrations of 145 groundwater samples were measured using RAD7 electronic radon detector and heavy metal concentrations of 52 groundwater samples were measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Radon concentration distributions were delineated using geographical information system. Radon concentration of water samples ranges between 1.6 Bq l⁻¹ and 271 Bq l⁻¹ with an average value of 35.9 ± 38.4 Bq l⁻¹. The average groundwater radon concentration is higher than US-EPA recommended level of 11.1 Bq l⁻¹ but lower than the WHO recommended limit of 100 Bq l⁻¹. The estimated average annual effective radiation doses to infants, children, and adults are 29 μSvy−1, 41 μSvy−1 and 92 μSvy−1 respectively. The radon distribution map of the study area reveals regions of high, medium, and low groundwater radon concentrations. The average concentration values of heavy metals in groundwater samples are of the order Mn > Zn > Pb > Cu > Cr > Ni > Cd. 84% of groundwater exhibits good to excellent quality in terms of heavy metal pollution. However, about 16% of the samples which lie in the sedimentary regions of Ogun and Lagos States exhibit poor to very poor quality. Overall, ingestion of groundwater in the study area may not pose a serious health hazards from radon ingestion and heavy metal toxicity.

Exploration and Investigation of High-Level Radon Medicinal Springs in the Crystalline Units: Lugicum

Radioactive (radon) groundwaters are highly valued among mineral waters for their healing effects. Between 2005 and 2015, a large exploratory event for prospecting and documenting radon water springs took place in the crystalline area of Lugicum (Bohemian Massif) under Czech–Polish cooperation. For these purposes, an exploration method was developed as a combination of GIS (ArcMap 9.1–10.2) area preparation followed by field radiohydrogeochemical mapping at a scale of 1:10,000. The gamma indication method was optimized and used for the selection of water samples. A total of 2354 water sources were examined. Radon activity concentrations were measured at 660 sources found throughout the territory. Of those, 111 sources exhibited 222Rn activity above 1500 Bq/L and, thus, were categorized as sources of mineral radioactive waters according to Czech legislation. The highest 222Rn activity was found in the Michael spring near Nové Město pod Smrkem (up to 6237 Bq/L 222Rn). Many discovered sources with high balneological potential are significant and, therefore, are quickly becoming popular among the public.

The enduring legacy of Marie Curie: impacts of radium in 21st century radiological and medical sciences

PURPOSE

This review is focused on radium and radionuclides in its decay chain in honor of Marie Curie, who discovered this element.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conglomerated current knowledge regarding radium and its history predating our present understanding of this radionuclide.

RESULTS

An overview of the properties of radium and its dose assessment is shown followed by discussions about both the negative detrimental and positive therapeutic applications of radium with this history and its evolution reflecting current innovations in medical science.

CONCLUSIONS

We hope to remind all those who are interested in the progress of science about the vagaries of the process of scientific discovery. In addition, we raise the interesting question of whether Marie Curie's initial success was in part possible due to her tight alignment with her husband Pierre Curie who pushed the work along.

Inhalations with thermal waters in respiratory diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Inhalations with thermal waters are an old therapeutic method used in the therapy of respiratory diseases as a treatment of choice showing a long-lasting outcome with no side effects. Paradoxically, there is little well-established research on their mechanisms of action.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this paper is therefore to summarize the influence of inhalatory treatment with thermal waters on the main symptoms and features of respiratory disorders including allergy-like symptoms, inflammation, oxidant-anti-oxidant balance, cellular influx, disturbed mucus secretions, recurrent infections, pulmonary and nasal function and quality of life. A short history of inhalations is also presented.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present paper is a sum-up of research articles on the use of inhalations with thermal waters in respiratory disorders.

RESULTS

According to the herein presented literature, the use of thermal water inhalations is beneficial for almost all manifestations of respiratory diseases. The mode of their action remains still unclear; however, it seems that the most important one relies on the restoration of proper defense mechanisms of the organism.

CONCLUSIONS

Inhalations with thermal waters alleviate symptoms of respiratory diseases. They also improve the quality of life of the patients and seem to be a good add-on therapy in the treatment of disorders of the respiratory system.

Investigation of Radon Sources, Health Hazard and Risks assessment for children using analytical and geospatial techniques in District Bannu (Pakistan)

PURPOSE

Radon (Rn) is a radioactive, odorless, and colorless gas which has a half-life of 3.83 days. One of the main sources of Rn which is directly consumed by the population is Groundwater (Tube well, Bore well, Hand pump). Rn gas is found naturally in rock, soil and water and can be considered as main health risk factor in terms of lung cancer, stomach diseases, leukemia and childhood cancer. The objective of this study was to determine the concentration of Rn in the drinking water sources, appraisal of health risk for children in District Bannu, Pakistan.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Total of 98 drinking water samples were analyzed by using RAD-7 detector. The experimental data was statistically analyzed by using Pearson's test. The experimental and epidemiological data of the study area are shown on map using ArcGIS version 10.5.

RESULTS

The analytical results show that Rn in drinking water was found varying from 10.1 Bq/l to 53.1 Bq/l with the average highest and lowest depth of 60 ft to 550 ft respectively. Pearson's test was used to show the concentration of Rn verses the depth of the water sources so +1 positive linear correlation was observed among the depth of water sources and the concentration of Rn. Out of 98 drinking water samples 40 sample were above the maximum contaminant level of 11.1 Bq/l (MCL) set by WHO, 2002. The effective doses (AED and DE_ing) for children ranges from 0.00001 to 3.792 mSv/y which exceeds the Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) of Rn (0.1mSv/y) in 30 drinking water samples . On the basis of analytical results Rn high concentration areas are shown on the map using IDW model of interpolation and health risks were shown in areas where Rn content was above the maximum contaminant level. High correlations of diseases related to Rn were observed amongst the residence of the study area. Gastrointestinal diseases, brain tumor, lung cancer and kidney diseases were observed among the children of the study area.

CONCLUSION

From the overall analysis it was observed that high Rn concentration in drinking water may cause substantial health damage in children after long term exposure.

Radon Exposure-Therapeutic Effect and Cancer Risk

Largely unnoticed, all life on earth is constantly exposed to low levels of ionizing radiation. Radon, an imperceptible natural occurring radioactive noble gas, contributes as the largest single fraction to radiation exposure from natural sources. For that reason, radon represents a major issue for radiation protection. Nevertheless, radon is also applied for the therapy of inflammatory and degenerative diseases in galleries and spas to many thousand patients a year. In either case, chronic environmental exposure or therapy, the effect of radon on the organism exposed is still under investigation at all levels of interaction. This includes the physical stage of diffusion and energy deposition by radioactive decay of radon and its progeny and the biological stage of initiating and propagating a physiologic response or inducing cancer after chronic exposure. The purpose of this manuscript is to comprehensively review the current knowledge of radon and its progeny on physical background, associated cancer risk and potential therapeutic effects.

222Rn Concentration in Groundwaters Circulating in Granitoid Massifs of Poland

The authors’ research has shown that the maximum values of 222Rn activity concentration in all granitoid massifs of Poland exceed 100 Bq·L−1, i.e. the value allowed for waters intended for human consumption. Such waters should be de-radoned prior to being distributed through the water supply networks. Even more common in these areas is the occurrence of potentially medicinal radon waters, i.e. waters characterized, in accordance with Polish law, by radon activity concentration of at least 74 Bq·L−1. Such waters may be used for balneotherapeutic treatments. For the Karkonosze, Strzegom-Sobótka, Kłodzko-Złoty Stok and Kudowa massifs, the range of hydrogeochemical background of 222Rn exceeds both 74 and 100 Bq·L−1. This indicates common occurrence in these areas of both potentially medicinal radon waters and waters which require de-radoning before being supplied for human consumption. More than 50% of groundwaters from the Karkonosze granite area contain over 100 Bq·L−1 of 222Rn. This means that these waters are mostly radon and high-radon waters. The remaining massifs contain predominantly low-radon waters and radon-poor waters. The 222Rn concentrations obtained by the authors are comparable to values measured in groundwaters in other granitoid massifs in the world, creating both problems and new application possibilities.

Radon concentration in hydrogeothermal deposit and spas of Boyacá, Colombia

Inhaled radon and its progenies induce health concern due to high activity-concentration in selected thermal spas of Boyacá region. Hydrogeothermal water sources in a high risk seismic area, are studied to determine by water bubbling method radon concentration values; their occurrence is between few hundreds and 2000 Bq dm^-3. Deposits, existing in this area, reach at the surface soil gas radon concentration up to 210 kBq m^-3. Maintenance workers, health tourists and visitor's possible detrimental health effects, are discussed in relation to radon balneotherapy beneficial aspects.

Balneotherapy, Immune System, and Stress Response: A Hormetic Strategy?

Balneotherapy is a clinically effective complementary approach in the treatment of low-grade inflammation- and stress-related pathologies. The biological mechanisms by which immersion in mineral-medicinal water and the application of mud alleviate symptoms of several pathologies are still not completely understood, but it is known that neuroendocrine and immunological responses—including both humoral and cell-mediated immunity—to balneotherapy are involved in these mechanisms of effectiveness; leading to anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, chondroprotective, and anabolic effects together with neuroendocrine-immune regulation in different conditions. Hormesis can play a critical role in all these biological effects and mechanisms of effectiveness. The hormetic effects of balneotherapy can be related to non-specific factors such as heat—which induces the heat shock response, and therefore the synthesis and release of heat shock proteins—and also to specific biochemical components such as hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) in sulfurous water and radon in radioactive water. Results from several investigations suggest that the beneficial effects of balneotherapy and hydrotherapy are consistent with the concept of hormesis, and thus support a role for hormesis in hydrothermal treatments.

Treatment of Cancer and Inflammation With Low-Dose Ionizing Radiation: Three Case Reports

There is considerable evidence from experimental studies in animals, as well as from clinical reports, that low-dose radiation hormesis is effective for the treatment of cancer and ulcerative colitis. In this study, we present 3 case reports that support the clinical efficacy of low-dose radiation hormesis in patients with these diseases. First, a patient with prostate cancer who had undergone surgical resection showed a subsequent increase in prostate-specific antigen (PSA). His PSA value started decreasing immediately after the start of repeated low-dose X-ray irradiation treatment and remained low thereafter. Second, a patient with prostate cancer with bone metastasis was treated with repeated low-dose X-ray irradiation. His PSA level decreased to nearly normal within 3 months after starting the treatment and remained at the low level after the end of hormesis treatment. His bone metastasis almost completely disappeared. Third, a patient with ulcerative colitis showed a slow initial response to repeated low-dose irradiation treatment using various modalities, including drinking radon-containing water, but within 8 months, his swelling and bleeding had completely disappeared. After 1 year, the number of bowel movements had become normal. Interest in the use of radiation hormesis in clinical practice is increasing, and we hope that these case reports will encourage further clinical investigations.

Radon: a radioactive therapeutic element

This paper presents selected issues related to the use of 222Rn in therapeutic treatments. Radon is a radioactive element whose usage in medicine for more than 100 years is based on the radiation hormesis theory. However, owing to the radioactive character of this element and the fact that its alpha-radioactive decay is the source of other radionuclides, its therapeutic application has been raising serious doubts. The author points to potential sources and carriers of radon in the environment that could supply radon for use in a variety of therapies. Except for centuries-long tradition of using radon groundwaters, and later also the air in caves and underground workings, the author would also like to focus on soil air, which is still underestimated as a source of radon. The text presents different methods of obtaining this radioactive gas from groundwaters, the air in caves, mining galleries and soil air, and it presents new possibilities in this field. The author also discusses problems related to the transportation and storage of radon obtained from the environment.

Within radon-prone areas, it is often necessary to de-radon groundwaters that are intended for human consumption and household usage. Also, dry radon wells are used to prevent radon migration from the ground into residential buildings. The author proposes using radon released from radon groundwaters and amassed in dry radon wells for radonotherapy treatments. Thanks to this, it is possible to reduce the cost of radiological protection of people within radon-prone areas while still exploiting the 222Rn obtained for a variety of therapies.

With regard to the ongoing and still unsettled dispute concerning the beneficial or detrimental impact of radon on the human organism, the author puts special emphasis on the necessity of strictly monitoring both the activity concentration of 222Rn in media used for therapeutic treatments and of its radioactive decay products. Monitoring should be also extended to the environments in which such treatments are delivered (inhalatoriums, baths, saunas, showers, pools and other facilities), as well as to the patients – during and after the radonotherapy treatments. It is also essential to monitor the dose of radon and its daughters that is received by persons undergoing radon therapy. This should facilitate the assessment of the effectiveness of these treatments, which may contribute to a fuller understanding of the mechanisms of radon impact, and ionizing radiation in general, on the human organism. This will make it easier to ultimately confirm or reject the radiation hormesis theory. It is also essential to monitor the effective dose that is received by medical and technical staff employed to deliver the radonotherapy treatments.

Commentary: ethical issues of current health-protection policies on low-dose ionizing radiation

The linear no-threshold (LNT) model of ionizing-radiation-induced cancer is based on the assumption that every radiation dose increment constitutes increased cancer risk for humans. The risk is hypothesized to increase linearly as the total dose increases. While this model is the basis for radiation safety regulations, its scientific validity has been questioned and debated for many decades. The recent memorandum of the International Commission on Radiological Protection admits that the LNT-model predictions at low doses are "speculative, unproven, undetectable and 'phantom'." Moreover, numerous experimental, ecological, and epidemiological studies show that low doses of sparsely-ionizing or sparsely-ionizing plus highly-ionizing radiation may be beneficial to human health (hormesis/adaptive response). The present LNT-model-based regulations impose excessive costs on the society. For example, the median-cost medical program is 5000 times more cost-efficient in saving lives than controlling radiation emissions. There are also lives lost: e.g., following Fukushima accident, more than 1000 disaster-related yet non-radiogenic premature deaths were officially registered among the population evacuated due to radiation concerns. Additional negative impacts of LNT-model-inspired radiophobia include: refusal of some patients to undergo potentially life-saving medical imaging; discouragement of the study of low-dose radiation therapies; motivation for radiological terrorism and promotion of nuclear proliferation.

The cellular and molecular carcinogenic effects of radon exposure: a review

Radon-222 is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that is responsible for approximately half of the human annual background radiation exposure globally. Chronic exposure to radon and its decay products is estimated to be the second leading cause of lung cancer behind smoking, and links to other forms of neoplasms have been postulated. Ionizing radiation emitted during the radioactive decay of radon and its progeny can induce a variety of cytogenetic effects that can be biologically damaging and result in an increased risk of carcinogenesis. Suggested effects produced as a result of alpha particle exposure from radon include mutations, chromosome aberrations, generation of reactive oxygen species, modification of the cell cycle, up or down regulation of cytokines and the increased production of proteins associated with cell-cycle regulation and carcinogenesis. A number of potential biomarkers of exposure, including translocations at codon 249 of TP53 in addition to HPRT mutations, have been suggested although, in conclusion, the evidence for such hotspots is insufficient. There is also substantial evidence of bystander effects, which may provide complications when calculating risk estimates as a result of exposure, particularly at low doses where cellular responses often appear to deviate from the linear, no-threshold hypothesis. At low doses, effects may also be dependent on cellular conditions as opposed to dose. The cellular and molecular carcinogenic effects of radon exposure have been observed to be both numerous and complex and the elevated chronic exposure of man may therefore pose a significant public health risk that may extend beyond the association with lung carcinogenesis.

Potential treatment of inflammatory and proliferative diseases by ultra-low doses of ionizing radiations

Ultra-low doses and dose- rates of ionizing radiation are effective in preventing disease which suggests that they also may be effective in treating disease. Limited experimental and anecdotal evidence indicates that low radiation doses from radon in mines and spas, thorium-bearing monazite sands and enhanced radioactive uranium ore obtained from a natural geological reactor may be useful in treating many inflammatory conditions and proliferative disorders, including cancer. Optimal therapeutic applications were identified via a literature survey as dose-rates ranging from 7 to 11μGy/hr or 28 to 44 times world average background rates. Rocks from an abandoned uranium mine in Utah were considered for therapeutic application and were examined by γ-ray and laser-induced breakdown fluorescence spectroscopy. The rocks showed the presence of transuranics and fission products with a γ-ray energy profile similar to aged spent uranium nuclear fuel (93% dose due to β particles and 7% due to γ rays). Mud packs of pulverized uranium ore rock dust in sealed plastic bags delivering bag surface β,γ dose-rates of 10-450 μGy/h were used with apparent success to treat several inflammatory and proliferative conditions in humans.