Therapeutic Effect of Carvacrol-loaded Albumin Nanoparticles on Arthritic Rats

Mechanistic insights into anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of plant secondary metabolites and their therapeutic potential for rheumatoid arthritis

The anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activities of plant secondary metabolites are due to their diverse mechanisms of action against multifarious molecular targets such as modulation of the complex immune system associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This review discussed and critically analyzed the potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of several phytochemicals and their underlying mechanisms in association with RA in experimental studies, including preliminary clinical studies of some of them. A wide range of phytochemicals including phenols, flavonoids, chalcones, xanthones, terpenoids, alkaloids, and glycosides have shown significant immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory activities in experimental RA models and a few have undergone clinical trials for their efficacy and safety in reducing RA symptoms and improve patient outcomes. These phytochemicals have potential as safer alternatives to the existing drugs in the management of RA, which possess a wide range of serious side effects. Sufficient preclinical studies on safety and efficacy of these phytochemicals must be performed prior to proper clinical studies. Further studies are needed to address the barriers that have so far limited their human use before the therapeutic potential of these plant-based chemicals as anti-arthritic agents in the treatment of RA is fully realized.

Role of Albumin as a Targeted Drug Carrier in the Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Comprehensive Review

An endogenous transporter protein called albumin interacts with the Fc receptor to provide it with multiple substrate-binding domains, cell membrane receptor activation, and an extended circulating half-life. Albumin has the remarkable ability to bind with receptors viz. secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) and scavenger protein-A (SR-A) that are overexpressed during rheumatoid arthritis (RA), enabling active targeting of the disease site instead of requiring specialized substrates to be added to the nanocarrier. RA, a chronic autoimmune illness, is characterized by the presence of a severe inflammatory response. RA patients have low serum albumin concentration, which signifies the high uptake of albumin at the inflammatory sites, giving a rationale to use albumin as a drug carrier for RA therapy. Albumin has the capacity for both passive and active targeting. It is an abundantly available protein in the bloodstream showing excellent cellular compatibility, degradability in biological tissues, nonantigenicity, and safety. There are three strategies of albumin mediated drug delivery as encapsulating therapeutics in albumin nanoparticles, chemically conjugating drugs with functional proteins, and albumin itself which is used as a targeting ligand to deliver drugs specifically to cells or tissues that express albumin-binding receptors. In the current review, an attempt has been made to highlight the significant evidence of albumin as a drug delivery carrier for the safe and effective management of RA. Evidence has been provided in the form of recent research advances, clinical trials, and patents. Additionally, this review will outline the prospective for the potential utilization of albumin as a drug vehicle for RA and suggest possible future avenues to provide the perspective for subsequent studies.

Carvacrol-Loaded Phytosomes for Enhanced Wound Healing: Molecular Docking, Formulation, DoE-Aided Optimization, and in vitro/in vivo Evaluation

Background

Despite recent advances in wound healing products, phytochemicals have been considered promising and attractive alternatives. Carvacrol (CAR), a natural phenolic compound, has been reported to be effective in wound healing.

Purpose

This work endeavored to develop novel CAR-loaded phytosomes for the enhancement of the wound healing process.

Methods

Molecular docking was performed to compare the affinities of the different types of phospholipids to CAR. Phytosomes were prepared by three methods (thin-film hydration, cosolvency, and salting out) using Lipoid S100 and Phospholipon 90H with three levels of saturation percent (0%, 50%, and 100%), and three levels of phospholipid molar percent (66.67%, 75%, and 80%). The optimization was performed using Design Expert where particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential were chosen as dependent variables. The optimized formula (F1) was further investigated regarding entrapment efficiency, TEM, 1H-NMR, FT-IR, DSC, X-RD, in vitro release, ex vivo permeation, and stability. Furthermore, it was incorporated into a hydrogel formulation, and an in vivo study was conducted to investigate the wound-healing properties of F1.

Results

F1 was chosen as the optimized formula prepared via the thin-film hydration method with a saturation percent and a phospholipid molar percent of zero and 66.67, respectively. TEM revealed the spherical shape of phytosomal vesicles with uniform size, while the results of 1H-NMR, FT-IR, DSC, and X-RD confirmed the formation of the phytosomal complex. F1 demonstrated a higher in vitro release and a slower permeation than free CAR. The wound area of F1-treated animals showed a marked reduction associated with a high degree of collagen fiber deposition and enhanced cellular proliferation.

Conclusion

F1 can be considered as a promising remedy for the enhancement of wound healing and hence it would be hoped to undergo further investigation.

Design of Targeted Flurbiprofen Biomimetic Nanoparticles for Management of Arthritis: In Vitro and In Vivo Appraisal

Flurbiprofen (FLUR) is a potent non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug used for the management of arthritis. Unfortunately, its therapeutic effect is limited by its rapid clearance from the joints following intra-articular injection. To improve its therapeutic efficacy, hyaluronic acid-coated bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (HA-BSA NPs) were formulated and loaded with FLUR to achieve active drug targeting. NPs were prepared by a modified nano-emulsification technique and their HA coating was proven via turbidimetric assay. Physicochemical characterization of the selected HA-BSA NPs revealed entrapment efficiency of 90.12 ± 1.06%, particle size of 257.12 ± 2.54 nm, PDI of 0.25 ± 0.01, and zeta potential of -48 ± 3 mv. The selected formulation showed in-vitro extended-release profile up to 6 days. In-vivo studies on adjuvant-induced arthritis rat model exhibited a significant reduction in joint swelling after intra-articular administration of FLUR-loaded HA-BSA NPs. Additionally, there was a significant reduction in CRP level in blood as well as TNF-α, and IL-6 levels in serum and joint tissues. Immunohistochemical study indicated a significant decrease in iNOS level in joint tissues. Histopathological analysis confirmed the safety of FLUR-loaded HA-BSA NPs. Thus, our results reveal that FLUR loaded HA-BSA NPs have a promising therapeutic effect in the management of arthritis.