Comparative Study on The Preventive Effect of Saffron Carotenoids, Crocin and Crocetin, in NMU-Induced Breast Cancer in Rats

The Emerging Role of Natural Products in Cancer Treatment

The exploration of natural products as potential agents for cancer treatment has garnered significant attention in recent years. In this comprehensive review, we delve into the diverse array of natural compounds, including alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, lignans, polyketides, saponins, tannins, and terpenoids, highlighting their emerging roles in cancer therapy. These compounds, derived from various botanical sources, exhibit a wide range of mechanisms of action, targeting critical pathways involved in cancer progression such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Through a meticulous examination of preclinical and clinical studies, we provide insights into the therapeutic potential of these natural products across different cancer types. Furthermore, we discuss the advantages and challenges associated with their use in cancer treatment, emphasizing the need for further research to optimize their efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and delivery methods. Overall, this review underscores the importance of natural products in advancing cancer therapeutics and paves the way for future investigations into their clinical applications.

Cadmium nanocluster as a safe nanocarrier: biodistribution in BALB/c mice and application to carry crocin to breast cancer cell lines

Aim

Metal nanoclusters are emerging nanomaterials applicable for drug delivery. Here, the toxicity and oxidative stress induction of divalent cationic cadmium (Cd2+) was compared with a Cd in the form of nanocluster. Then, it was used for targeted drug delivery into breast cancer cell lines.

Methods

Using a green chemistry route, a Cd nanocluster (Cd-NC) was synthesized based on bovine serum albumin. After characterization, its genotoxicity and oxidative stress induction were studied in both in vitro and in vivo. After that, it was conjugated with hyaluronic acid (HA). The efficiency of hyaloronized-Cd-CN (HA-Cd-NC) for loading and releasing crocin (Cro), an anticancer phytochemical, was studied. Finally, it was applied for cell death induction in a panel of breast cancer cell lines.

Results

The comet assay results indicated that, unlike Cd2+ and potassium permanganate (KMnO4), no genotoxicity and oxidative stress was induced by Cd-NC in vitro. Then, the pharmacokinetics of this Cd-NC was studied in vivo. The data showed that Cd-NC has accumulated in the liver and excreted from the feces of mice. Unlike Cd2+, no toxicity and oxidative stress were induced by this Cd-NC in animal tissues. Then, the Cd-NC was targeted toward breast cancer cells by adding HA, a ligand for the CD44 cell surface receptor. After that, Cro was loaded on HA-Cd-NC and it was used for the treatment of a panel of human breast cancer cell lines with varying degrees of CD44. The half-maximal drug inhibitory concentration (IC50) of Cro was significantly decreased when it was loaded on HA-Cd-NC, especially in MDA-MB-468 with a higher degree of CD44 at the surface. These results indicate the higher toxicity of Cro toward breast cancers when carried out by HA-Cd-NC.

Conclusions

The Cd-NC was completely safe and is a promising candidate for delivering anticancer drugs/phytochemicals into the targeted breast tumors.

An overview of pharmacological effects of Crocus sativous and its constituents

Crocus sativus L. was used for the treatment of a wide range of disorders in traditional medicine. Due to the extensive protective and treatment properties of C. sativus and its constituents in various diseases, the purpose of this review is to collect a summary of its effects, on experimental studies, both in vitro and in vivo. Databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, and Scopus were explored until January 2023 by employing suitable keywords. Several investigations have indicated that the therapeutic properties of C. sativus may be due to its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects on the nervous, cardiovascular, immune, and respiratory systems. Further research has shown that its petals also have anticonvulsant properties. Pharmacological studies have shown that crocetin and safranal have anti-oxidant properties and through inhibiting the release of free radicals lead to the prevention of disorders such as tumor cell proliferation, atherosclerosis, hepatotoxicity, bladder toxicity, and ethanol induced hippocampal disorders. Numerous studies have been performed on the effect of C. sativus and its constituents in laboratory animal models under in vitro and in vivo conditions on various disorders. This is necessary but not enough and more clinical trials are needed to investigate unknown aspects of the therapeutic properties of C. sativus and its main constituents in different disorders.

Advances on the anti-tumor mechanisms of the carotenoid Crocin

Saffron is located in the upper part of the crocus stigma of iridaceae, which has a long history of medicinal use. Crocin (molecular formula C44H64O24) is a natural floral glycoside ester compound extracted from saffron, which is a type carotenoid. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that crocin has multiple therapeutic effects including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-stone effects. In recent years, crocin has been widely noticed due to its considerable anti-tumor effects manifested by the induction of tumor cell apoptosis, inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, inhibition of tumor cell invasion and metastasis, enhancement of chemotherapy sensitivity and improvement of immune status. The anti-tumor effects have been shown in various malignant tumors such as gastric cancer, liver cancer, cervical cancer, breast cancer and colorectal cancer. In this review, we compiled recent studies on the anti-tumor effects of crocin and summarized its anti-tumor mechanism for developing ideas of treating malignancies and exploring anti-tumor drugs.

Therapeutic Potential of Certain Terpenoids as Anticancer Agents: A Scoping Review

Cancer is a life-threatening disease and is considered to be among the leading causes of death worldwide. Chemoresistance, severe toxicity, relapse and metastasis are the major obstacles in cancer therapy. Therefore, introducing new therapeutic agents for cancer remains a priority to increase the range of effective treatments. Terpenoids, a large group of secondary metabolites, are derived from plant sources and are composed of several isoprene units. The high diversity of terpenoids has drawn attention to their potential anticancer and pharmacological activities. Some terpenoids exhibit an anticancer effect by triggering various stages of cancer progression, for example, suppressing the early stage of tumorigenesis via induction of cell cycle arrest, inhibiting cancer cell differentiation and activating apoptosis. At the late stage of cancer development, certain terpenoids are able to inhibit angiogenesis and metastasis via modulation of different intracellular signaling pathways. Significant progress in the identification of the mechanism of action and signaling pathways through which terpenoids exert their anticancer effects has been highlighted. Hence, in this review, the anticancer activities of twenty-five terpenoids are discussed in detail. In addition, this review provides insights on the current clinical trials and future directions towards the development of certain terpenoids as potential anticancer agents.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.): A Source of Nutrients for Health and for the Treatment of Neuropsychiatric and Age-Related Diseases

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a medicinal plant, originally cultivated in the East and Middle East, and later in some Mediterranean countries. Saffron is obtained from the stigmas of the plant. Currently, the use of saffron is undergoing a revival. The medicinal virtues of saffron, its culinary use and its high added value have led to the clarification of its phytochemical profile and its biological and therapeutic characteristics. Saffron is rich in carotenoids and terpenes. The major products of saffron are crocins and crocetin (carotenoids) deriving from zeaxanthin, pirocrocin and safranal, which give it its taste and aroma, respectively. Saffron and its major compounds have powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro and in vivo. Anti-tumor properties have also been described. The goal of this review is to present the beneficial effects of saffron and its main constituent molecules on neuropsychiatric diseases (depression, anxiety and schizophrenia) as well as on the most frequent age-related diseases (cardiovascular, ocular and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as sarcopenia). Overall, the phytochemical profile of saffron confers many beneficial virtues on human health and, in particular, on the prevention of age-related diseases, which is a major asset reinforcing the interest for this medicinal plant.

Inhibitory Effect of Crocin Against Gastric Carcinoma via Regulating TPM4 Gene

Background

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common malignant tumors and the second most frequent cause of cancer death worldwide. Crocin is a kind of bioactive constituent found in the stigmas of saffron, which has shown various pharmacological activities.

Methods

In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of crocin on gastric cancer AGS cells proliferation and explored the underlying mechanism. A series of methods were used including cell counting kit assay, gene microarray analysis, qRT-PCR, Celigo image cytometry, cell clone formation assay, Western blot, and cell xenograft growth in vivo.

Results

The results indicated that crocin inhibited AGS cells proliferation and promoted cell apoptosis. Further studies suggested that crocin decreased a series of genes expression, among which TPM4 gene downregulation inhibited the tumor cells proliferation and tumor growth in mice, and overexpression of TPM4 gene abolishes the inhibitory effect of crocin. Further study using microarray analysis suggested that knocking down of TPM4 altered genes related to the proliferation and apoptosis of cells.

Discussion

Crocin could inhibit the gastric cancer cells AGS cells proliferation by regulating TPM4 gene expression, and TPM4 may be a promising therapeutic target for GC treatment.

Isolation, purification and characterization of naturally derived Crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester from Crocus sativus L. against breast cancer and its binding chemistry with ER-alpha/HDAC2

Saffron plant (Crocus sativus L.) is being used as a source of saffron spice and medicine to cure or prevent different types of diseases including cancers. We report the isolation, characterization of bioactive small molecule ([crocetin (β-d-glucosyl) ester] from the leaf biowastes of saffron plant of Kashmir, India. MTTC assay and Bio-autography aided approach were used to assess anti-oxidant activity and anti-cancer properties of crocin (s) against DPPH free radical and breast cancer cell line respectively. Crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester restrained proliferation of human breast adeno-carcinoma cell model (MCF-7) without significantly affecting normal cell line (L-6). Further studies involving molecular mechanics generalized born surface area and molecular docking showed that crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester exhibits strong affinity for estrogen receptor alpha and histone deacetylase 2 (crucial receptors involved in breast cancer signalling) as evidenced by the negative docking score and binding free energy (BFE) values. Therefore, crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester from Crocus sativus biowastes showed antiproliferative effect possibly by inhibiting estrogen receptor alpha and HDAC2 mediated signalling cascade.

Crocetin and crocin decreased cholesterol and triglyceride content of both breast cancer tumors and cell lines

OBJECTIVE

Inhibition of lipid metabolism in breast cancer has been suggested as an effective approach for cancer therapy. Saffron-derived crocetin (Crt) and crocin (Cro) with the known anticancer activity, have shown hypolipidemic effect in diabetes and atherosclerosis. Here, we investigated the effect of Crt/Cro on lipid content in breast cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A multi-model approach involving in vivo, in vitro and in silico studies was applied. The 4T1-induced breast cancer in mice was used to investigate the effect of Crt/Cro on cholesterol (Chl) and triglyceride (TG) levels in serum and tumor tissues. The Chl/TG levels were also assessed in the cytosol of MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines 6, 12 and 24 hr after Crt/Cro treatment. The interaction between Crt/Cro and hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) was also computed by docking analysis.

RESULTS

Crt reduced both serum (p=0.003) and tumor (p=0.011) Chl and TG (p=0.001) levels in mice. Cro reduced TG levels in tumor (p=0.014) and serum (p=0.002) and Chl level in tumor (p=0.013) tissues. Crt reduced both Chl and TG in MDA-MB-231 (p=0.014 and p=0.002, respectively) and MCF-7 (p=0.014 and p=0.002, respectively), after 24 h. Cro reduced both Chl and TG in MDA-MB-231 (p=0.014 and p=0.002, respectively) and MCF-7 (p=0.014 and p=0.002, respectively), after 24 h. Crt binds to the active site of HMGCR with higher affinity (ΔG⁰=-6.6 kcal/mol) than simvastatin (ΔG⁰ =-6.0 kcal/mol).

CONCLUSION

Crt and Cro effectively decreased Chl/TG content in the sera of tumor bearing mice, in breast tumors and breast cancer cell lines. Crt showed a higher hypolipidemic potential than Cro. In silico analysis indicated Crt binding in the HMGCR active site.

The Natural Carotenoid Crocetin and the Synthetic Tellurium Compound AS101 Protect the Ovary against Cyclophosphamide by Modulating SIRT1 and Mitochondrial Markers

Cancer therapies are associated with increased infertility risk due to accelerated reproductive aging. Oxidative stress (OS) is a potential mechanism behind ovarian toxicity by cyclophosphamide (CPM), the most ovotoxic anticancer drug. An important sensor of OS is SIRT1, a NAD⁺-dependent deacetylase which regulates cellular defence and cell fate. This study investigated whether the natural carotenoid crocetin and the synthetic compound AS101 protect the ovary against CPM by modulating SIRT1 and mitochondrial markers. We found that the number of primordial follicles of female CD1 mice receiving crocetin plus CPM increased when compared with CPM alone and similar to AS101, whose protective effects are known. SIRT1 increased in CPM mouse ovaries revealing the occurrence of OS. Similarly, mitochondrial SIRT3 rose, whilst SOD2 and the mitochondrial biogenesis activator PGC1-α decreased, suggesting the occurrence of mitochondrial damage. Crocetin and AS101 administration prevented SIRT1 burst suggesting that preservation of redox balance can help the ovary to counteract ovarian damage by CPM. Decreased SIRT3 and increased SOD2 and PGC1-α in mice receiving crocetin or AS101 prior to CPM provide evidence for mitochondrial protection. Present results improve the knowledge of ovarian damage by CPM and may help to develop interventions for preserving fertility in cancer patients.

Dietary Natural Products for Prevention and Treatment of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among females worldwide. Several epidemiological studies suggested the inverse correlation between the intake of vegetables and fruits and the incidence of breast cancer. Substantial experimental studies indicated that many dietary natural products could affect the development and progression of breast cancer, such as soy, pomegranate, mangosteen, citrus fruits, apple, grape, mango, cruciferous vegetables, ginger, garlic, black cumin, edible macro-fungi, and cereals. Their anti-breast cancer effects involve various mechanisms of action, such as downregulating ER-α expression and activity, inhibiting proliferation, migration, metastasis and angiogenesis of breast tumor cells, inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, and sensitizing breast tumor cells to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. This review summarizes the potential role of dietary natural products and their major bioactive components in prevention and treatment of breast cancer, and special attention was paid to the mechanisms of action.