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Wu Y, Zhang X, Liu X, Li Y, Han D, Pi Y, Whitmore MA, Lu X, Zhang G, Zheng J, Wang J. Strain specificity of lactobacilli with promoted colonization by galactooligosaccharides administration in protecting intestinal barriers during Salmonella infection. J Adv Res 2024; 56:1-14. [PMID: 36894120 PMCID: PMC10834803 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2023.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Galactooligosaccharides (GOS) are lactogenic prebiotics that exert health benefits by stimulating the growth of different Lactobacillus strains in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of action of different GOS-enriched lactobacilli in intestinal health. METHODS Piglets and mice were supplemented with GOS to identify specific enrichment of Lactobacillus. The protective effects of individual GOS-enriched lactobacilli were investigated in Salmonella-infected mice. Macrophage depletion and transcriptome analysis were further performed to assess the involvement of macrophages and the underlying mechanisms of individual lactobacilli. An in vitro cell co-culture system was also used to evaluate the anti-adhesive and anti-invasive activities of lactobacilli against Salmonella in epithelial cells. RESULTS GOS markedly increased the relative abundance of three lactobacilli including L. delbrueckii, L. johnsonii, and L. reuteri in both piglets and mice. Supplementation with GOS further alleviated Salmonella infection in mice. L. delbrueckii (ATCC®BAA 365™), but not L. johnsonii or L. reuteri, enhanced propionate production in the intestinal tract and ameliorated Salmonella-induced intestinal inflammation and barrier dysfunction by suppressing the JAK2-STAT3 signaling and M1 macrophage polarization. L. johnsonii (BNCC 186110), on the other hand, inhibited Salmonella adhesion and invasion of epithelial cells through competitive exclusion. However, L. reuteri (BNCC 186135) failed to protect mice against Salmonella infection. CONCLUSION GOS-enriched lactobacilli show a differential role in protecting against Salmonella-induced intestinal barrier dysfunction and inflammation. Our results provide novel insights into the mechanism of action of GOS and individual Lactobacillus strains in the control and prevention of intestinal inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujun Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiangyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaoyi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Dandan Han
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yu Pi
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Melanie A Whitmore
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Xingmiao Lu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Guolong Zhang
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Jinkai Zheng
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Junjun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
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Zhang Y, Xu M, Guo Y, Chen L, Vongsangnak W, Xu Q, Lu L. Programmed cell death and Salmonella pathogenesis: an interactive overview. Front Microbiol 2024; 14:1333500. [PMID: 38249488 PMCID: PMC10797706 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1333500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Programmed cell death (PCD) is the collective term for the intrinsically regulated death of cells. Various types of cell death are triggered by their own programmed regulation during the growth and development of organisms, as well as in response to environmental and disease stresses. PCD encompasses apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, autophagy, and other forms. PCD plays a crucial role not only in the growth and development of organisms but also in serving as a component of the host innate immune defense and as a bacterial virulence strategy employed by pathogens during invasion. The zoonotic pathogen Salmonella has the ability to modulate multiple forms of PCD, including apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, and autophagy, within the host organism. This modulation subsequently impacts the bacterial infection process. This review aims to consolidate recent findings regarding the mechanisms by which Salmonella initiates and controls cell death signaling, the ways in which various forms of cell death can impede or restrict bacterial proliferation, and the interplay between cell death and innate immune pathways that can counteract Salmonella-induced suppression of host cell death. Ultimately, these insights may contribute novel perspectives for the diagnosis and treatment of clinical Salmonella-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Maodou Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yujiao Guo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Li Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wanwipa Vongsangnak
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Qi Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lizhi Lu
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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Khan U, Karmakar BC, Basak P, Paul S, Gope A, Sarkar D, Mukhopadhyay AK, Dutta S, Bhattacharya S. Glycyrrhizin, an inhibitor of HMGB1 induces autolysosomal degradation function and inhibits Helicobacter pylori infection. Mol Med 2023; 29:51. [PMID: 37038107 PMCID: PMC10088177 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-023-00641-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Helicobacter pylori is a key agent for causing gastric complications linked with gastric disorders. In response to infection, host cells stimulate autophagy to maintain cellular homeostasis. However, H. pylori have evolved the ability to usurp the host's autophagic machinery. High mobility group box1 (HMGB1), an alarmin molecule is a regulator of autophagy and its expression is augmented during infection and gastric cancer. Therefore, this study aims to explore the role of glycyrrhizin (a known inhibitor of HMGB1) in autophagy during H. pylori infection. MAIN METHODS Human gastric cancer (AGS) cells were infected with the H. pylori SS1 strain and further treatment was done with glycyrrhizin. Western blot was used to examine the expression of autophagy proteins. Autophagy and lysosomal activity were monitored by fluorescence assays. A knockdown of HMGB1 was performed to verify the effect of glycyrrhizin. H. pylori infection in in vivo mice model was established and the effect of glycyrrhizin treatment was studied. RESULTS The autophagy-lysosomal pathway was impaired due to an increase in lysosomal membrane permeabilization during H. pylori infection in AGS cells. Subsequently, glycyrrhizin treatment restored the lysosomal membrane integrity. The recovered lysosomal function enhanced autolysosome formation and concomitantly attenuated the intracellular H. pylori growth by eliminating the pathogenic niche. Additionally, glycyrrhizin treatment inhibited inflammation and improved gastric tissue damage in mice. CONCLUSION This study showed that inhibiting HMGB1 restored lysosomal activity to ameliorate H. pylori infection. It also demonstrated the potential of glycyrrhizin as an antibacterial agent to address the problem of antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uzma Khan
- Division of Biochemistry ICMR-NICED, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), Kolkata, 700010, India
| | - Bipul Chandra Karmakar
- Division of Bacteriology ICMR-NICED, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), Kolkata, 700010, India
| | - Priyanka Basak
- Division of Biochemistry ICMR-NICED, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), Kolkata, 700010, India
| | - Sangita Paul
- Division of Bacteriology ICMR-NICED, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), Kolkata, 700010, India
| | - Animesh Gope
- Division of Clinical Medicine, ICMR-NICED, ICMR- National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), Kolkata, India
| | - Deotima Sarkar
- Division of Biochemistry ICMR-NICED, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), Kolkata, 700010, India
| | - Asish Kumar Mukhopadhyay
- Division of Bacteriology ICMR-NICED, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), Kolkata, 700010, India
| | - Shanta Dutta
- Division of Bacteriology ICMR-NICED, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), Kolkata, 700010, India
| | - Sushmita Bhattacharya
- Division of Biochemistry ICMR-NICED, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), Kolkata, 700010, India.
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Lee YJ, Kim JK, Jung CH, Kim YJ, Jung EJ, Lee SH, Choi HR, Son YS, Shim SM, Jeon SM, Choe JH, Lee SH, Whang J, Sohn KC, Hur GM, Kim HT, Yeom J, Jo EK, Kwon YT. Chemical modulation of SQSTM1/p62-mediated xenophagy that targets a broad range of pathogenic bacteria. Autophagy 2022; 18:2926-2945. [PMID: 35316156 PMCID: PMC9673928 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2022.2054240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The N-degron pathway is a proteolytic system in which the N-terminal degrons (N-degrons) of proteins, such as arginine (Nt-Arg), induce the degradation of proteins and subcellular organelles via the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) or macroautophagy/autophagy-lysosome system (hereafter autophagy). Here, we developed the chemical mimics of the N-degron Nt-Arg as a pharmaceutical means to induce targeted degradation of intracellular bacteria via autophagy, such as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium), Escherichia coli, and Streptococcus pyogenes as well as Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Upon binding the ZZ domain of the autophagic cargo receptor SQSTM1/p62 (sequestosome 1), these chemicals induced the biogenesis and recruitment of autophagic membranes to intracellular bacteria via SQSTM1, leading to lysosomal degradation. The antimicrobial efficacy was independent of rapamycin-modulated core autophagic pathways and synergistic with the reduced production of inflammatory cytokines. In mice, these drugs exhibited antimicrobial efficacy for S. Typhimurium, Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), and Mtb as well as multidrug-resistant Mtb and inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokines. This dual mode of action in xenophagy and inflammation significantly protected mice from inflammatory lesions in the lungs and other tissues caused by all the tested bacterial strains. Our results suggest that the N-degron pathway provides a therapeutic target in host-directed therapeutics for a broad range of drug-resistant intracellular pathogens.Abbreviations: ATG: autophagy-related gene; BCG: Bacillus Calmette-Guérin; BMDMs: bone marrow-derived macrophages; CALCOCO2/NDP52: calcium binding and coiled-coil domain 2; CFUs: colony-forming units; CXCL: C-X-C motif chemokine ligand; EGFP: enhanced green fluorescent protein; IL1B/IL-1β: interleukin 1 beta; IL6: interleukin 6; LIR: MAP1LC3/LC3-interacting region; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; Mtb: Mycobacterium tuberculosis; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NBR1: NBR1 autophagy cargo receptor; OPTN: optineurin; PB1: Phox and Bem1; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; S. Typhimurium: Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium; TAX1BP1: Tax1 binding protein 1; TNF: tumor necrosis factor; UBA: ubiquitin-associated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon Jee Lee
- Cellular Degradation Biology Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Kyung Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Chan Hoon Jung
- Cellular Degradation Biology Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Jae Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Eui Jung Jung
- Cellular Degradation Biology Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Hyun Lee
- Cellular Degradation Biology Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ha Rim Choi
- Cellular Degradation Biology Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeon Sung Son
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Medical Research Center, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Mi Shim
- Cellular Degradation Biology Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Min Jeon
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Jin Ho Choe
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Sang-Hee Lee
- Center for Research Equipment, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju, Korea
| | - Jake Whang
- Korea Mycobacterium Resource Center (KMRC) & Basic Research Section, The Korean Institute of Tuberculosis (KIT), Cheongju, Korea
| | - Kyung-Cheol Sohn
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Department of Pharmacology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Gang Min Hur
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Department of Pharmacology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Hyun Tae Kim
- Chemistry R&D Center, AUTOTAC Bio Inc, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinki Yeom
- Cellular Degradation Biology Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Kyeong Jo
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea,CONTACT Eun-Kyeong Jo Department of Microbiology, and Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon35015, Korea
| | - Yong Tae Kwon
- Cellular Degradation Biology Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea,Chemistry R&D Center, AUTOTAC Bio Inc, Seoul, Republic of Korea,SNU Dementia Research Center, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea,Ischemic/Hypoxic Disease Institute, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea,Yong Tae Kwon Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul110-799, Korea
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Wang H, Xie Z, Yang F, Wang Y, Jiang H, Huang X, Zhang Y. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi influences inflammation and autophagy in macrophages. Braz J Microbiol 2022; 53:525-534. [PMID: 35274232 PMCID: PMC9151981 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-022-00719-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) is a human enteropathogen that can survive in macrophages and cause systemic infection. Autophagy and inflammation are two important immune responses of macrophages that contribute to the elimination of pathogens. However, Salmonella has derived many strategies to evade inflammation and autophagy. This study investigated inflammation-related NF-κB signaling pathways and autophagy in S. Typhi-infected macrophages. RNA-seq and quantitative real-time PCR indicated that mRNA levels of NF-κB signaling pathway and autophagy-related genes were dynamically influenced in S. Typhi-infected macrophages. Western blots revealed that S. Typhi activated the NF-κB signaling pathway and induced the expression of inhibitor protein IκBζ. In addition, S. Typhi enhanced autophagy during early stages of infection and may inhibit autophagy during late stages of infection. Thus, we propose that S. Typhi can influence the NF-κB signaling pathway and autophagy in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiyun Wang
- JiangYin Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Jiangyin, 214400, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhongyi Xie
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jiangsu University School of Medicine, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fanfan Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jiangsu University School of Medicine, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yurou Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jiangsu University School of Medicine, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Haiqiang Jiang
- JiangYin Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Jiangyin, 214400, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xinxiang Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jiangsu University School of Medicine, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jiangsu University School of Medicine, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China.
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Peptidoglycan editing in non-proliferating intracellular Salmonella as source of interference with immune signaling. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010241. [PMID: 35077524 PMCID: PMC8815878 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica causes intracellular infections that can be limited to the intestine or spread to deeper tissues. In most cases, intracellular bacteria show moderate growth. How these bacteria face host defenses that recognize peptidoglycan, is poorly understood. Here, we report a high-resolution structural analysis of the minute amounts of peptidoglycan purified from S. enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) infecting fibroblasts, a cell type in which this pathogen undergoes moderate growth and persists for days intracellularly. The peptidoglycan of these non-proliferating bacteria contains atypical crosslinked muropeptides with stem peptides trimmed at the L-alanine-D-glutamic acid-(γ) or D-glutamic acid-(γ)-meso-diaminopimelic acid motifs, both sensed by intracellular immune receptors. This peptidoglycan has a reduced glycan chain average length and ~30% increase in the L,D-crosslink, a type of bridge shared by all the atypical crosslinked muropeptides identified. The L,D-transpeptidases LdtD (YcbB) and LdtE (YnhG) are responsible for the formation of these L,D-bridges in the peptidoglycan of intracellular bacteria. We also identified in a fraction of muropeptides an unprecedented modification in the peptidoglycan of intracellular S. Typhimurium consisting of the amino alcohol alaninol replacing the terminal (fourth) D-alanine. Alaninol was still detectable in the peptidoglycan of a double mutant lacking LdtD and LdtE, thereby ruling out the contribution of these enzymes to this chemical modification. Remarkably, all multiple mutants tested lacking candidate enzymes that either trim stem peptides or form the L,D-bridges retain the capacity to modify the terminal D-alanine to alaninol and all attenuate NF-κB nuclear translocation. These data inferred a potential role of alaninol-containing muropeptides in attenuating pro-inflammatory signaling, which was confirmed with a synthetic tetrapeptide bearing such amino alcohol. We suggest that the modification of D-alanine to alaninol in the peptidoglycan of non-proliferating intracellular S. Typhimurium is an editing process exploited by this pathogen to evade immune recognition inside host cells. The peptidoglycan, built as a giant polymer of glycan chains crosslinked with short peptides, is essential for cell shape and survival in most bacteria. Its unique chemistry is recognized by innate immune receptors, thereby enabling neutralization of invading microbes. A striking feature of the peptidoglycan is its constant remodeling by a plethora of endogenous enzymes. In addition, some bacterial pathogens introduce structural modifications that interfere with immune recognition. These modifications have been characterized in pathogens mostly in laboratory nutrient media. Whether facultative intracellular pathogens modify peptidoglycan structure inside host cells, was unknown. The work presented here shows that non-proliferating Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium remodels the peptidoglycan structure in response to intracellular cues and that some of these modifications involve unprecedented changes as the presence of an amino alcohol that hampers activation of the master immune regulator NF-κB. Peptidoglycan editing might therefore empower persistence of bacterial pathogens in the intracellular niche.
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