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Silva PHF, Oliveira LFF, Cardoso RS, Santana SI, Casarin RC, Ervolino E, Salvador SL, Palioto DB, Furlaneto FAC, Messora MR. Effects of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus HD100 on experimental periodontitis in rats. Mol Oral Microbiol 2023; 38:158-170. [PMID: 36495122 DOI: 10.1111/omi.12402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
AIM The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus HD100 on experimental periodontitis (EP) in rats. METHODS Thirty-two rats were divided into four groups: control, C-HD100 (B. bacteriovorus), EP, and EP-HD100. On day 0, EP was induced by the placement of cotton ligatures around the mandibular first molars (MFMs) in the EP and EP-HD100 groups. In the C-HD100 and EP-HD100 groups, suspensions containing 1 × 109 PUF/ml of B. bacteriovorus HD100 were topically administered to the subgingival region of MFMs on days 0, 3, and 7. Animals were euthanized on day 14. Morphometrics analyses were performed in hemimandibles. The levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, IL-10, IL-1β, transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and regulated on activation and normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) were determined by enzymatic immunoassays in gingival tissues. Beta defensin (BD)-1, BD-2, and BD-3, Toll-like receptors (TLR)-2 and TLR-4, and a cluster of differentiation (CD)-4, CD-8 and CD-57 were analyzed by immunohistochemistry in hemimandibles. Data were statistically analyzed. RESULTS The EP group showed greater alveolar bone loss than EP-HD100 (p < .05). The EP-HD100 group showed higher levels of MCP-1, RANTES, IL-10, and TGF-β, lower levels of TNF-α than the EP group (p < .05). No differences were observed in IL-1β, IL-6, and M-CSF levels between EP and EP-HD100 groups. The C-HD100 group had higher IL-6, TNF-α, RANTES, and MCP-1 levels than the control group (p < .05). Regarding BD, the EP-HD100 group showed a larger immunolabeling pattern for BD-1, BD-2, and BD-3 than the EP group (p < .05). No significant differences in the immunolabeling pattern were observed for TLR-2, TLR-4, CD-4, CD-8, and CD-57 between EP and EP-HD100 groups. CONCLUSION The topical use of B. bacteriovorus HD100 reduces alveolar bone loss, increases expression of BD, and modulates the cytokines levels on periodontal tissues in rats with EP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Henrique Felix Silva
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Periodontology, School of Dentistry of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Fernando Ferreira Oliveira
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Periodontology, School of Dentistry of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Renata Silva Cardoso
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Periodontology, School of Dentistry of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sandro Isaias Santana
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Periodontology, School of Dentistry of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Renato Correa Casarin
- Department of Prosthodontics and Periodontics, School of Dentistry, Campinas State University, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Edilson Ervolino
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Histology, Dental School of Araçatuba, São Paulo State University, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sergio Luiz Salvador
- Department of Clinical Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Daniela Bazan Palioto
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Periodontology, School of Dentistry of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Flávia Aparecida Chaves Furlaneto
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Periodontology, School of Dentistry of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Michel Reis Messora
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Periodontology, School of Dentistry of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Morio KA, Sternowski RH, Brogden KA. Induction of Endogenous Antimicrobial Peptides to Prevent or Treat Oral Infection and Inflammation. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:antibiotics12020361. [PMID: 36830272 PMCID: PMC9952314 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12020361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibiotics are often used to treat oral infections. Unfortunately, excessive antibiotic use can adversely alter oral microbiomes and promote the development of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, which can be difficult to treat. An alternate approach could be to induce the local transcription and expression of endogenous oral antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). To assess the feasibility and benefits of this approach, we conducted literature searches to identify (i) the AMPs expressed in the oral cavity; (ii) the methods used to induce endogenous AMP expression; and (iii) the roles that expressed AMPs may have in regulating oral inflammation, immunity, healing, and pain. Search results identified human neutrophil peptides (HNP), human beta defensins (HBD), and cathelicidin AMP (CAMP) gene product LL-37 as prominent AMPs expressed by oral cells and tissues. HNP, HBD, and LL-37 expression can be induced by micronutrients (trace elements, elements, and vitamins), nutrients, macronutrients (mono-, di-, and polysaccharides, amino acids, pyropeptides, proteins, and fatty acids), proinflammatory agonists, thyroid hormones, and exposure to ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, red light, or near infrared radiation (NIR). Localized AMP expression can help reduce infection, inflammation, and pain and help oral tissues heal. The use of a specific inducer depends upon the overall objective. Inducing the expression of AMPs through beneficial foods would be suitable for long-term health protection. Additionally, the specialized metabolites or concentrated extracts that are utilized as dosage forms would maintain the oral and intestinal microbiome composition and control oral and intestinal infections. Inducing AMP expression using irradiation methodologies would be applicable to a specific oral treatment area in addition to controlling local infections while regulating inflammatory and healing processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kim A. Brogden
- College of Dentistry, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
- Correspondence:
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Hardan L, Chedid JCA, Bourgi R, Cuevas-Suárez CE, Lukomska-Szymanska M, Tosco V, Monjarás-Ávila AJ, Jabra M, Salloum-Yared F, Kharouf N, Mancino D, Haikel Y. Peptides in Dentistry: A Scoping Review. Bioengineering (Basel) 2023; 10:bioengineering10020214. [PMID: 36829708 PMCID: PMC9952573 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering10020214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, it remains unclear which specific peptides could be appropriate for applications in different fields of dentistry. The aim of this scoping review was to scan the contemporary scientific papers related to the types, uses and applications of peptides in dentistry at the moment. Literature database searches were performed in the following databases: PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, and Scielo. A total of 133 articles involving the use of peptides in dentistry-related applications were included. The studies involved experimental designs in animals, microorganisms, or cells; clinical trials were also identified within this review. Most of the applications of peptides included caries management, implant osseointegration, guided tissue regeneration, vital pulp therapy, antimicrobial activity, enamel remineralization, periodontal therapy, the surface modification of tooth implants, and the modification of other restorative materials such as dental adhesives and denture base resins. The in vitro and in vivo studies included in this review suggested that peptides may have beneficial effects for treating early carious lesions, promoting cell adhesion, enhancing the adhesion strength of dental implants, and in tissue engineering as healthy promotors of the periodontium and antimicrobial agents. The lack of clinical trials should be highlighted, leaving a wide space available for the investigation of peptides in dentistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis Hardan
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Saint Joseph University, Beirut 1107 2180, Lebanon
| | - Jean Claude Abou Chedid
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Saint Joseph University, Beirut 1107 2180, Lebanon
| | - Rim Bourgi
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Saint Joseph University, Beirut 1107 2180, Lebanon
- Department of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, INSERM UMR_S 1121, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Carlos Enrique Cuevas-Suárez
- Dental Materials Laboratory, Academic Area of Dentistry, Autonomous University of Hidalgo State, San Agustín Tlaxiaca 42160, Mexico
- Correspondence: (C.E.C.-S.); (N.K.); (Y.H.); Tel.: +52-(771)-72000 (C.E.C.-S.)
| | | | - Vincenzo Tosco
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Stomatology (DISCO), Polytechnic University of Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Ana Josefina Monjarás-Ávila
- Dental Materials Laboratory, Academic Area of Dentistry, Autonomous University of Hidalgo State, San Agustín Tlaxiaca 42160, Mexico
| | - Massa Jabra
- Faculty of Medicine, Damascus University, Damascus 0100, Syria
| | | | - Naji Kharouf
- Department of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, INSERM UMR_S 1121, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Department of Endodontics and Conservative Dentistry, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Correspondence: (C.E.C.-S.); (N.K.); (Y.H.); Tel.: +52-(771)-72000 (C.E.C.-S.)
| | - Davide Mancino
- Department of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, INSERM UMR_S 1121, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Department of Endodontics and Conservative Dentistry, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Pôle de Médecine et Chirurgie Bucco-Dentaire, Hôpital Civil, Hôpitaux Universitaire de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Youssef Haikel
- Department of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, INSERM UMR_S 1121, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Department of Endodontics and Conservative Dentistry, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Pôle de Médecine et Chirurgie Bucco-Dentaire, Hôpital Civil, Hôpitaux Universitaire de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Correspondence: (C.E.C.-S.); (N.K.); (Y.H.); Tel.: +52-(771)-72000 (C.E.C.-S.)
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Moazzezy N, Asadi Karam MR, Rafati S, Bouzari S, Oloomi M. A Synthetic Peptide 2Abz 23S 29 Reduces Bacterial Titer and Induces Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in a Murine Model of Urinary Tract Infection. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2020; 14:2797-2807. [PMID: 32764879 PMCID: PMC7381768 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s259937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Introduction A urinary tract infection (UTI), which is often caused by uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) strains, affects many people worldwide annually. UPEC causes the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by the bladder epithelial cells; however, it has been proven that the UPEC can inhibit the early activation of the innate immune system. Methods This study aimed to examine the antibacterial and immunomodulatory effects of different doses of truncated alpha-defensins (human neutrophil peptide (HNP)-1) analog 2Abz23S29 on the mouse UTI model. Experimentally uropathogenic E. coli CFT073-infected mice were treated with low-dose 2Abz23S29 (250µg/mL), high-dose 2Abz23S29 (750µg/mL), ciprofloxacin (cip) (800µg/mL), or high-dose 2Abz23S29plus cip once a day 24 h post-infection. The 2Abz23S29 and cip treatment were given for two consecutive days. Results The in vivo results showed that fewer UPEC were recovered from the bladders of mice treated transurethrally with 2Abz23S29. Moreover, low-dose 2Abz23S29 significantly decreased the level of the interleukin-6 (IL-6), whereas high-dose 2Abz23S29 increased pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, macrophage inflammatory protein/2 (MIP/2), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in infected bladders of mice. Besides, the levels of cytokines IL-6 and MIP/2 in infected mice treated with a combination of high-dose 2Abz23S29 and cip were significantly higher than the untreated mice. In contrast, CFT073-infected mice treated with a combination of high-dose 2Abz23S29 and cip showed no changes in cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β levels, indicating that ciprofloxacin may play an anti-inflammatory role. Conclusion Collectively, apart from the direct antibacterial role of 2Abz23S29, our data illustrated that 2Abz23S29 modulates pro-inflammatory cytokine production of bladder in a dose-dependent manner, which has implications for the development of new anti-infective agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Moazzezy
- Molecular Biology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Sima Rafati
- Immunotherapy and Leishmania Vaccine Research Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeid Bouzari
- Molecular Biology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mana Oloomi
- Molecular Biology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
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5
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Xie K, Xie H, Su G, Chen D, Yu B, Mao X, Huang Z, Yu J, Luo J, Zheng P, Luo Y, He J. β-Defensin 129 Attenuates Bacterial Endotoxin-Induced Inflammation and Intestinal Epithelial Cell Apoptosis. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2333. [PMID: 31636641 PMCID: PMC6787771 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Defensins have attracted considerable research interest worldwide because of their potential to serve as a substitute for antibiotics. In this study, we characterized a novel porcine β-defensin (pBD129) and explored its role in alleviating bacterial endotoxin-induced inflammation and intestinal epithelium atrophy. The pBD129 gene was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. A recombinant pBD129 protein was also purified. To explore its role in alleviating the endotoxin-induced inflammation, mice, with or without lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge were treated by pBD129 at different doses. The recombinant pBD129 showed significant antimicrobial activities against the E. coli and Streptococcus with a minimal inhibitory concentration (MICs) of 32 μg/mL. Hemolytic assays showed that the pBD129 had no detrimental impact on cell viabilities. Interestingly, we found that pBD129 attenuated LPS-induced inflammatory responses by decreasing serum concentrations of inflammatory cytokines, such as the IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α (P < 0.05). Moreover, pBD129 elevated the intestinal villus height (P < 0.05) and enhanced the expression and localization of the major tight junction-associated protein ZO-1 in LPS-challenged mice. Additionally, pDB129 at a high dose significantly decreased serum diamine oxidase (DAO) concentration (P < 0.05) and reduced intestinal epithelium cell apoptosis (P < 0.05) in LPS-challenged mice. Importantly, pBD129 elevated the expression level of Bcl-2-associated death promoter (Bcl-2), but down-regulated the expression levels of apoptosis-related genes such as the B-cell lymphoma-2-associated X protein (Bax), BH3-interacting domain death agonist (Bid), cysteinyl aspartate-specific proteinase-3 (Caspase-3), and caspase-9 in the intestinal mucosa (P < 0.05). These results suggested a novel function of the mammalian defensins, and the anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties of pBD129 may allow it a potential substitute for conventionally used antibiotics or drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunhong Xie
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
| | - Hongmei Xie
- Shandong Vocational Animal Science and Veterinary College, Weifang, China
| | - Guoqi Su
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
| | - Daiwen Chen
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
| | - Bing Yu
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiangbing Mao
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhiqing Huang
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
| | - Jie Yu
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
| | - Junqiu Luo
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
| | - Ping Zheng
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuheng Luo
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
| | - Jun He
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-resistant Nutrition, Chengdu, China
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Lyu J, Bian T, Chen B, Cui D, Li L, Gong L, Yan F. β-defensin 3 modulates macrophage activation and orientation during acute inflammatory response to Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharide. Cytokine 2017; 92:48-54. [PMID: 28092794 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2016.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
β-defensin 3, a multifunctional antimicrobial peptide, has immuno-regulatory activities. We investigated the modulatory mechanism of human β-defensin 3 (hBD3) on acute inflammatory response resulted from Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharide (P.g-LPS), which plays a pro-inflammatory role in periodontal infection and its derived systemic inflammation. P.g-LPS was administrated to mice and murine macrophages alone or along with hBD3. P.g-LPS could lead to acute inflammation as soon as 2h. And it was observed that hBD3 significantly decreased the production of pro-inflammatory biomarkers of in response to P.g-LPS in vivo and in vitro in the early stage. Interestingly, although hBD3 as well as P.g-LPS stimulated the expression of TLR2 mRNA in macrophages in this study, hBD3 exhibited suppressive effect on the downstream NF-κB signaling pathway activated by P.g-LPS. And above all, hBD3 could polarize macrophages into M2 phenotype and this contributed to its anti-inflammatory property. These results indicated that hBD3 could have therapeutic effect on systemic inflammation associated with periodontal infections via modulating macrophage activation and orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinglu Lyu
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Tianying Bian
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Bin Chen
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Di Cui
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Lili Li
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Ling Gong
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Fuhua Yan
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China.
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Maeda T, Sakiyama T, Kanmura S, Hashimoto S, Ibusuki K, Tanoue S, Komaki Y, Arima S, Nasu Y, Sasaki F, Taguchi H, Numata M, Uto H, Tsubouchi H, Ido A. Low concentrations of human neutrophil peptide ameliorate experimental murine colitis. Int J Mol Med 2016; 38:1777-1785. [PMID: 27840892 PMCID: PMC5117768 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2016.2795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2015] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human neutrophil peptides (HNPs) not only have antimicrobial properties, but also exert multiple immunomodulatory effects depending on the concentration used. We have previously demonstrated that the intraperitoneal administration of high-dose HNP-1 (100 µg/day) aggravates murine dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis, suggesting a potential pro-inflammatory role for HNPs at high concentrations. However, the role of low physiological concentrations of HNPs in the intestinal tract remains largely unknown. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of low concentrations of HNPs on intestinal inflammation. We first examined the effects of the mild transgenic overexpression of HNP-1 in DSS-induced colitis. HNP-1 transgenic mice have plasma HNP-1 levels similar to the physiological concentrations in human plasma. Compared to wild-type mice treated with DSS, HNP-1 transgenic mice treated with DSS had significantly lower clinical and histological scores, and lower colonic mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. We then injected low-dose HNP-1 (5 µg/day) or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) intraperitoneally into C57BL/6N and BALB/c mice administered DSS. The HNP-1-treated mice exhibited significantly milder colitis with reduced expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines compared with the PBS-treated mice. Finally, we examined the in vitro effects of HNP-1 on the expression of cytokines associated with macrophage activation. Low physiological concentrations of HNP-1 did not significantly affect the expression levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6 or IL-10 in colonic lamina propria mononuclear cells activated with heat-killed Escherichia coli, suggesting that the anti-inflammatory effects of HNP-1 on murine colitis may not be exerted by direct action on intestinal macrophages. Collectively, our data demonstrated a biphasic dose-dependent effect of HNP-1 on DSS-induced colitis: an amelioration at low concentrations and an aggravation at high concentrations. Low concentrations of HNPs may contribute to the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuro Maeda
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Toshio Sakiyama
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Shuji Kanmura
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Shinichi Hashimoto
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Kazunari Ibusuki
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Shiroh Tanoue
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Yuga Komaki
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Shiho Arima
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Yuichiro Nasu
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Fumisato Sasaki
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Hiroki Taguchi
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Masatsugu Numata
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Uto
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Hirohito Tsubouchi
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Akio Ido
- Digestive and Lifestyle Diseases, Department of Human and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
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Brogden KA, Johnson GK, Vincent SD, Abbasi T, Vali S. Oral inflammation, a role for antimicrobial peptide modulation of cytokine and chemokine responses. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 11:1097-113. [DOI: 10.1586/14787210.2013.836059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Greer A, Zenobia C, Darveau RP. Defensins and LL-37: a review of function in the gingival epithelium. Periodontol 2000 2013; 63:67-79. [PMID: 23931055 PMCID: PMC3744237 DOI: 10.1111/prd.12028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides represent an important aspect of the innate defense system that contributes to the control of bacterial colonization and infection. As studies have progressed it has become clear that antimicrobial peptides manifest other functions in addition to their antimicrobial effects. These functions include chemotaxis of numerous types of host cells involved in both the innate and adaptive immune responses. In this review, the antimicrobial activity, the regulation and the contribution to host homeostasis of alpha-defensins and LL-37, as well as of beta-defensins, are discussed in the context of their specific tissue locations in the junctional epithelium and oral epithelium, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Richard P. Darveau
- Corresponding Author: Richard P. Darveau, University of Washington, Department of Periodontics, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Box 357444, Seattle, WA 98195-7444, Tel: 206-543-5043, Fax: 206-616-7478,
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10
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Harvey LE, Kohlgraf KG, Mehalick LA, Raina M, Recker EN, Radhakrishnan S, Prasad SA, Vidva R, Progulske-Fox A, Cavanaugh JE, Vali S, Brogden KA. Defensin DEFB103 bidirectionally regulates chemokine and cytokine responses to a pro-inflammatory stimulus. Sci Rep 2013; 3:1232. [PMID: 23390582 PMCID: PMC3565171 DOI: 10.1038/srep01232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Human β defensin DEFB103 acts as both a stimulant and an attenuator of chemokine and cytokine responses: a dichotomy that is not entirely understood. Our predicted results using an in silico simulation model of dendritic cells and our observed results in human myeloid dendritic cells, show that DEFB103 significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced 6 responses, attenuated 7 responses, and both enhanced/attenuated the CXCL1 and TNF responses to Porphyromonas gingivalis hemagglutinin B (HagB). In murine JAWSII dendritic cells, DEFB103 significantly attenuated, yet rarely enhanced, the Cxcl2, Il6, and Csf3 responses to HagB; and in C57/BL6 mice, DEFB103 significantly enhanced, yet rarely attenuated, the Cxcl1, Csf1, and Csf3 responses. Thus, DEFB103 influences pro-inflammatory activities with the concentration of DEFB103 and order of timing of DEFB103 exposure to dendritic cells, with respect to microbial antigen exposure to cells, being paramount in orchestrating the onset, magnitude, and composition of the chemokine and cytokine response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren E Harvey
- Dows Institute for Dental Research or Department of Periodontics, College of Dentistry, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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11
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Rishi P, Singh AP, Arora S, Garg N, Kaur IP. Revisiting eukaryotic anti-infective biotherapeutics. Crit Rev Microbiol 2013; 40:281-92. [PMID: 23317462 DOI: 10.3109/1040841x.2012.749210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Emerging drug resistance has forced the scientific community to revisit the observational data documented in the folklore and come up with novel and effective alternatives. Candidates from eukaryotic origin including herbal products and antimicrobial peptides are finding a strategic place in the therapeutic armamentarium against infectious diseases. These agents have recently gained interest owing to their versatile applications. Present review encompasses the use of these alternative strategies in their native or designer form, alone or in conjunction with antibiotics, as possible remedial measures. Further to this, the limitations or the possible concerns associated with these options are also discussed at length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praveen Rishi
- Department of Microbiology, Panjab University , Chandigarh, Chandigarh , India and
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12
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Weinberg A, Jin G, Sieg S, McCormick TS. The yin and yang of human Beta-defensins in health and disease. Front Immunol 2012; 3:294. [PMID: 23060878 PMCID: PMC3465815 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Accepted: 09/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapidly evolving research examining the extended role of human beta-defensins (hBDs) in chemoattraction, innate immune-mediated response, and promotion of angiogenesis suggest that the collective effects of hBDs extend well beyond their antimicrobial mechanism(s). Indeed, the numerous basic cellular functions associated with hBDs demonstrate that these peptides have dual impact on health, as they may be advantageous under certain conditions, but potentially detrimental in others. The consequences of these functions are reflected in the overexpression of hBDs in diseases, such as psoriasis, and recently the association of hBDs with pro-tumoral signaling. The mechanisms regulating hBD response in health and disease are still being elucidated. Clearly the spectrum of function now attributed to hBD regulation identifies these molecules as important cellular regulators, whose appropriate expression is critical for proper immune surveillance; i.e., expression of hBDs in proximity to areas of cellular dysregulation may inadvertently exacerbate disease progression. Understanding the mechanism(s) that regulate contextual signaling of hBDs is an important area of concentration in our laboratories. Using a combination of immunologic, biochemical, and molecular biologic approaches, we have identified signaling pathways associated with hBD promotion of immune homeostasis and have begun to dissect the inappropriate role that beta-defensins may assume in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Weinberg
- Department of Biological Sciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Dental Medicine Cleveland, OH, USA
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13
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Zhang M, Qiu Z, Li Y, Yang Y, Zhang Q, Xiang Q, Su Z, Huang Y. Construction and characterization of a recombinant human beta defensin 2 fusion protein targeting the epidermal growth factor receptor: in vitro study. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 97:3913-23. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-012-4257-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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14
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Brogden NK, Mehalick L, Fischer CL, Wertz PW, Brogden KA. The emerging role of peptides and lipids as antimicrobial epidermal barriers and modulators of local inflammation. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2012; 25:167-81. [PMID: 22538862 DOI: 10.1159/000337927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Skin is complex and comprised of distinct layers, each layer with unique architecture and immunologic functions. Cells within these layers produce differing amounts of antimicrobial peptides and lipids (sphingoid bases and sebaceous fatty acids) that limit colonization of commensal and opportunistic microorganisms. Furthermore, antimicrobial peptides and lipids have distinct, concentration-dependent ancillary innate and adaptive immune functions. At 0.1-2.0 μM, antimicrobial peptides induce cell migration and adaptive immune responses to coadministered antigens. At 2.0-6.0 μM, they induce cell proliferation and enhance wound healing. At 6.0-12.0 μM, they can regulate chemokine and cytokine production and at their highest concentrations of 15.0-30.0 μM, antimicrobial peptides can be cytotoxic. At 1-100 nM, lipids enhance cell migration induced by chemokines, suppress apoptosis, and optimize T cell cytotoxicity, and at 0.3-1.0 μM they inhibit cell migration and attenuate chemokine and pro-inflammatory cytokine responses. Recently, many antimicrobial peptides and lipids at 0.1-2.0 μM have been found to attenuate the production of chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines to microbial antigens. Together, both the antimicrobial and the anti-inflammatory activities of these peptides and lipids may serve to create a strong, overlapping immunologic barrier that not only controls the concentrations of cutaneous commensal flora but also the extent to which they induce a localized inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Brogden
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA.
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15
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Bélanger M, Kozarov E, Song H, Whitlock J, Progulske-Fox A. Both the unique and repeat regions of the Porphyromonas gingivalis hemagglutin A are involved in adhesion and invasion of host cells. Anaerobe 2012; 18:128-34. [PMID: 22100486 PMCID: PMC3278541 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2011.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Revised: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 10/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Porphyromonas gingivalis is one of the major etiologic agents of adult periodontitis and has been associated with cardiovascular diseases. It expresses multiple hemagglutinins that are significant virulence factors and play an important role in bacterial attachment and invasion of host cells. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of P. gingivalis hemagglutinin A (HagA) on the attachment to and invasion of human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAEC) and gingival epithelial cells (GEC). Bacterial strains expressing the HagA protein (or subunits), including Escherichia coli carrying plasmid pEKS5, E. coli carrying plasmid ST2, and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium with plasmid pNM1.1 were used in this study. The strains were tested for their ability to attach to and invade HCAEC and GEC using antibiotic protection assays. In addition, the unique 5' N-terminal non-repeated segment of HagA was purified in recombinant form and a monoclonal antibody was created against the polypeptide. The monoclonal antibody against the unique portion of HagA was tested for inhibitory activity in these assays. The attachment of both E. coli strains expressing HagA fragment to host cells was significantly increased compared to their respective controls. However, they did not invade GEC or HCAEC. Interestingly, HagA expression in the Salmonella strain increased both adherence to and invasion of HCAEC, which may be due to the presence of the entire hagA ORF. A monoclonal antibody against the unique 5' N-terminal portion of HagA reduced invasion. Further experiments are needed to determine the role of the unique and the repeat segments of P. gingivalis HagA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Bélanger
- University of Florida, Center for Molecular Microbiology and Department of Oral Biology, Box 100424, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424, USA
| | - Emil Kozarov
- University of Florida, Center for Molecular Microbiology and Department of Oral Biology, Box 100424, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424, USA
| | - Hong Song
- University of Florida, Center for Molecular Microbiology and Department of Oral Biology, Box 100424, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424, USA
| | - Joan Whitlock
- University of Florida, Center for Molecular Microbiology and Department of Oral Biology, Box 100424, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424, USA
| | - Ann Progulske-Fox
- University of Florida, Center for Molecular Microbiology and Department of Oral Biology, Box 100424, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424, USA
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16
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Brogden NK, Brogden KA. Will new generations of modified antimicrobial peptides improve their potential as pharmaceuticals? Int J Antimicrob Agents 2011; 38:217-25. [PMID: 21733662 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2011.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2011] [Accepted: 05/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The concept of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as potent pharmaceuticals is firmly established in the literature, and most research articles on this topic conclude by stating that AMPs represent promising therapeutic agents against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Indeed, early research in this field showed that AMPs were diverse in nature, had high activities with low minimal inhibitory concentrations, had broad spectrums of activity against bacterial, fungal and viral pathogens, and could easily be manipulated to alter their specificities, reduce their cytotoxicities and increase their antimicrobial activities. Unfortunately, commercial development of these peptides, for even the simplest of applications, has been very limited. With some peptides there are obstacles with their manufacture, in vivo efficacy and in vivo retention. More recently, the focus has shifted. Contemporary research now uses a more sophisticated approach to develop AMPs that surmount many of these prior obstacles. AMP mimetics, hybrid AMPs, AMP congeners, cyclotides and stabilised AMPs, AMP conjugates and immobilised AMPs have all emerged with selective or 'targeted' antimicrobial activities, improved retention, or unique abilities that allow them to bind to medical or industrial surfaces. These groups of new peptides have creative medical and industrial application potentials to treat antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections and septic shock, to preserve food or to sanitise surfaces both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole K Brogden
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
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17
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Maisetta G, Brancatisano FL, Esin S, Campa M, Batoni G. Gingipains produced by Porphyromonas gingivalis ATCC49417 degrade human-β-defensin 3 and affect peptide's antibacterial activity in vitro. Peptides 2011; 32:1073-7. [PMID: 21335044 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2011.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2010] [Revised: 02/07/2011] [Accepted: 02/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Porphyromonas gingivalis, one of the major pathogen associated with periodontitis, is a highly proteolytic bacterial species. Production of proteases is a common microbial virulence factor that enables the destruction of host tissues and evasion from host defense mechanisms. Antimicrobial peptides are important effector molecules of the innate immune system with a broad range of antimicrobial and immunoregulatory activities. We and others have previously demonstrated that P. gingivalis is relatively resistant to the bactericidal activity of the human β-defensin 3 (hBD3). In this study, ability of proteases released by the pathogenic strain of P. gingivalis ATCC 49417 to degrade hBD3 and to affect the antibacterial properties of the peptide was assessed. P. gingivalis culture supernatants (CS) were found to degrade hBD3 in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Such degradation was mainly due to the activity of Arg and Lys-gingipains, as pretreatment of CS with inhibitors selective for this class of proteases abolished CS ability to degrade hBD3. Importantly, preincubation of hBD3 with CS reduced peptide's antibacterial activity against a susceptible strain of Staphylococcus aureus, while the presence of gingipain inhibitors in the bactericidal assay increased P. gingivalis susceptibility to hBD3. Altogether these results suggest that gingipains may have a role in the resistance of P. gingivalis ATCC 49417 to hBD3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppantonio Maisetta
- Dipartimento di Patologia Sperimentale, Biotecnologie Mediche, Infettivologia ed Epidemiologia, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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18
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Abstract
Initially identified as broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptides, the members of the β-defensin family have increasingly been observed to exhibit numerous other activities, both in vitro and in vivo, that do not always relate directly to host defense. Much research has been carried out in the oral cavity, where the presence of commensal bacteria further complicates the definition of their role. In addition to direct antimicrobial activity, β-defensins exhibit potent chemotactic activity for a variety of innate immune cells, as well as stimulating other cells to secrete cytokines. They can also inhibit the inflammatory response, however, by the specific binding of microbe-associated molecular patterns. These patterns are also able to induce the expression of β-defensins in gingival epithelial cells, although significant differences are observed between different species of bacteria. Together these results suggest a complex model of a host-defense related function in maintenance of bacterial homeostasis and response to pathogens. This model is complicated, however, by numerous other observations of β-defensin involvement in cell proliferation, wound healing and cancer. Together, the in vitro, in vivo and human studies suggest that these peptides are important in the biology of the oral cavity; exactly how is still subject to speculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Diamond
- Department of Oral Biology, UMDNJ-New Jersey Dental School, Newark, NJ 07101, USA.
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19
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Inomata M, Into T, Murakami Y. Suppressive effect of the antimicrobial peptide LL-37 on expression of IL-6, IL-8 and CXCL10 induced by Porphyromonas gingivalis cells and extracts in human gingival fibroblasts. Eur J Oral Sci 2010; 118:574-81. [PMID: 21083618 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0722.2010.00775.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Porphyromonas gingivalis is a major periodontogenic bacterium and possesses immunostimulatory components, such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and fimbriae. The host antimicrobial peptide, LL-37, suppresses proinflammatory responses of immune cells but its effect on human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs) is not known. In this study, we assessed the effect of LL-37 on the proinflammatory responses of HGFs stimulated with P. gingivalis cells and their components. Live P. gingivalis cells did not induce proinflammatory responses of HGFs, and LL-37 did not alter these responses. However, LL-37 was able to suppress the killed P. gingivalis cell-induced secretion of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8. LL-37 also suppressed the expression of IL6, IL8, and CXCL10 genes that was induced by P. gingivalis components, including phenol-water extracts, lipid A, and fimbriae, and the induction of phosphorylation of p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) by P. gingivalis lipopolysaccharide (LPS). CAMP was found to be expressed in oral epithelial cells but not in HGFs, despite stimulation with P. gingivalis components. Therefore, LL-37 can exert a suppressive effect on P. gingivalis-induced proinflammatory responses of HGFs in a paracrine manner, suggesting that excess inflammatory responses to P. gingivalis in the gingival tissue are suppressed by LL-37 in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megumi Inomata
- Department of Oral Microbiology, Asahi University, School of Dentistry, Mizuho, Gifu, Japan
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20
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Kohlgraf KG, Pingel LC, Dietrich DE, Brogden KA. Defensins as anti-inflammatory compounds and mucosal adjuvants. Future Microbiol 2010; 5:99-113. [PMID: 20020832 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.09.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human neutrophil peptide alpha-defensins and human beta-defensins are small, well-characterized peptides with broad antimicrobial activities. In mixtures with microbial antigens, defensins attenuate proinflammatory cytokine responses by dendritic cells in culture, attenuate proinflammatory cytokine responses in the nasal fluids of exposed mice and enhance antibody responses in the serum of vaccinated mice. Although the exact mechanisms are unknown, defensins first start by binding to microbial antigens and adhesins, often attenuating toxic or inflammatory-inducing capacities. Binding is not generic; it appears to be both defensin-specific and antigen-specific with high affinities. Binding of defensins to antigens may, in turn, alter the interaction of antigens with epithelial cells and antigen-presenting cells attenuating the production of proinflammatory cytokines. The binding of defensins to antigens may also facilitate the delivery of bound antigen to antigen-presenting cells in some cases via specific receptors. These interactions enhance the immunogenicity of the bound antigen in an adjuvant-like fashion. Future research will determine the extent to which defensins can suppress early events in inflammation and enhance systemic antibody responses, a very recent and exciting concept that could be exploited to develop therapeutics to prevent or treat a variety of oral mucosal infections, particularly where inflammation plays a role in the pathogenesis of disease and its long-term sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl G Kohlgraf
- Dows Institute for Dental Research, College of Dentistry, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA.
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