Functional nanocarrier for drug and gene delivery via local administration in mucosal tissues

Chemical modification of hyaluronic acid as a strategy for the development of advanced drug delivery systems

Hyaluronic acid (HA) has emerged as a promising biopolymer for various biomedical applications due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and intrinsic ability to interact with cell surface receptors, making it an attractive candidate for drug delivery systems and tissue engineering. Chemical modification of HA has opened up versatile possibilities to tailor its properties, enabling the development of advanced drug delivery systems and biomaterials with enhanced functionalities and targeted applications. This review analyzes the strategies and applications of chemically modified HA in the field of drug delivery and biomaterial development. The first part of the review focuses on the different methods and functional groups used for the chemical modification of HA, highlighting the impact of these modifications on its physicochemical properties, degradation behavior and interactions with drugs. The second part of the review evaluates the use of chemically modified HA in the development of advanced biomedical materials including nano- and microparticles, hydrogels and mucoadhesive materials with tailored drug release profiles, site-specific targeting and stimuli-responsive behavior. Thus, the review consolidates the current advances and future perspectives in the field of chemical modification of HA, underscoring its immense potential to drive the development of advanced drug delivery systems and biomaterials with diverse biomedical applications.

Intestinal Targeted Nanogel with Broad-Spectrum Autonomous ROS Scavenging Performance for Enhancing the Bioactivity of trans-Resveratrol

Introduction

To improve the bioavailability of trans-resveratrol (trans-Res), it is commonly co-delivered with antioxidant bioactives using a complex synthetic intestinal targeted carrier, however, which makes practical application challenging.

Methods

A nanogel (Ngel), as broad-spectrum autonomous ROS scavenger, was prepared using selenized thiolated sodium alginate (TSA-Se) and crosslinked with calcium lactate (CL) for loading trans-Res to obtain Ngel@Res, which maintained spherical morphology in the upper digestive tract but broke down in the lower digestive tract, resulting in trans-Res release.

Results

Under protection of Ngel, trans-Res showed enhanced stability and broad-spectrum ROS scavenging activity. The synergistic mucoadhesion of Ngel prolonged the retention time of trans-Res in the intestine. Ngel and Ngel@Res increased the lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans to 26.00 ± 2.17 and 26.00 ± 4.27 days by enhancing the activity of antioxidases, upregulating the expression of daf-16, sod-5 and skn-1, while downregulating the expression of daf-2 and age-1.

Conclusion

This readily available, intestinal targeted selenized alginate-based nanogel effectively improves the bioactivity of trans-Res.

Chitosan-Functionalized Poly(β-Amino Ester) Hybrid System for Gene Delivery in Vaginal Mucosal Epithelial Cells

Gene therapy displays great promise in the treatment of cervical cancer. The occurrence of cervical cancer is highly related to persistent human papilloma virus (HPV) infection. The HPV oncogene can be cleaved via gene editing technology to eliminate carcinogenic elements. However, the successful application of the gene therapy method depends on effective gene delivery into the vagina. To improve mucosal penetration and adhesion ability, quaternized chitosan was introduced into the poly(β-amino ester) (PBAE) gene-delivery system in the form of quaternized chitosan-g-PBAE (QCP). At a mass ratio of PBAE:QCP of 2:1, the polymers exhibited the highest green fluorescent protein (GFP) transfection efficiency in HEK293T and ME180 cells, which was 1.1 and 5.4 times higher than that of PEI 25 kD. At this mass ratio, PBAE-QCP effectively compressed the GFP into spherical polyplex nanoparticles (PQ-GFP NPs) with a diameter of 255.5 nm. In vivo results indicated that owing to the mucopenetration and adhesion capability of quaternized CS, the GFP transfection efficiency of the PBAE-QCP hybrid system was considerably higher than those of PBAE and PEI 25 kD in the vaginal epithelial cells of Sprague-Dawley rats. Furthermore, the new system demonstrated low toxicity and good safety, laying an effective foundation for its further application in gene therapy.

An Insight into Advances in Developing Nanotechnology Based Therapeutics, Drug Delivery, Diagnostics and Vaccines: Multidimensional Applications in Tuberculosis Disease Management

Tuberculosis (TB), one of the deadliest contagious diseases, is a major concern worldwide. Long-term treatment, a high pill burden, limited compliance, and strict administration schedules are all variables that contribute to the development of MDR and XDR tuberculosis patients. The rise of multidrug-resistant strains and a scarcity of anti-TB medications pose a threat to TB control in the future. As a result, a strong and effective system is required to overcome technological limitations and improve the efficacy of therapeutic medications, which is still a huge problem for pharmacological technology. Nanotechnology offers an interesting opportunity for accurate identification of mycobacterial strains and improved medication treatment possibilities for tuberculosis. Nano medicine in tuberculosis is an emerging research field that provides the possibility of efficient medication delivery using nanoparticles and a decrease in drug dosages and adverse effects to boost patient compliance with therapy and recovery. Due to their fascinating characteristics, this strategy is useful in overcoming the abnormalities associated with traditional therapy and leads to some optimization of the therapeutic impact. It also decreases the dosing frequency and eliminates the problem of low compliance. To develop modern diagnosis techniques, upgraded treatment, and possible prevention of tuberculosis, the nanoparticle-based tests have demonstrated considerable advances. The literature search was conducted using Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Elsevier databases only. This article examines the possibility of employing nanotechnology for TB diagnosis, nanotechnology-based medicine delivery systems, and prevention for the successful elimination of TB illnesses.

The delivery of nanoparticles improves the pharmacokinetic properties of celecoxib to open a therapeutic window for oral administration of insoluble drugs

A sensitive and reliable LC-MS/MS method is established and validated to determine the concentration of celecoxib, in the serum of cynomolgus monkey, using celecoxib-D7 as an internal standard. The pharmacokinetic process was investigated after giving Celebrex, celecoxib nanoparticles (CXB-NPs) and hyaluronic acid celecoxib nanoparticles (HA-CXB-NPs) by intragastric (i.g.) administration. Chromatographic separation was performed with a C₁₈ column (2.1 × 100 mm, 2.6 μm) at 40°C with a mobile phase of 2‰ HCOOH in water and acetonitrile. The mass spectral acquisition was then performed in the multiple reaction monitoring mode, with negative ESI ion at m/z 380.0 → 316.0 and m/z 387.1 → 323.1 for celecoxib and celecoxib-D7, respectively. Good linearity was observed over the concentration range from 3 to 2,000 ng/ml (R²  = 0.9954). The intra- and inter-day precision and accuracy, matrix effect and extraction recovery, as well as stability, all met the determination requirements of biological samples. The pharmacokinetic parameters of Celebrex, CXB-NPs and HA-CXB-NPs were determined as: area under the curve, 1,855.98 ± 346.59, 1,908.00 ± 1,130.24 and 2,164.48 ± 657.47 h·ng/ml; peak concentration, 261.08 ± 113.26, 261.12 ± 94.67 and 263.34 ± 151.78 μg/L; time to peak concentration, 2.00 ± 1.22, 4.00 ± 0.00 and 3.60 ± 0.89 h; half-life, 4.39 ± 1.26, 2.33 ± 0.94 and 4.92 ± 3.13 h; relative bioavailability, 102.80 ± 49.62 and 116.63 ± 25.55%. The validated method was successfully applied to the pharmacokinetic study of celecoxib in cynomolgus monkey, after i.g. administration. The preparation of the nanoparticles of celecoxib and the modification of hyaluronic acid on the surface of nanoparticles could improve the bioavailability and prolong the circulation of celecoxib in vivo, which could lay the foundation for further development of celecoxib nanoparticles.

Patches as Polymeric Systems for Improved Delivery of Topical Corticosteroids: Advances and Future Perspectives

Mucoadhesive polymer patches are a promising alternative for prolonged and controlled delivery of topical corticosteroids (CS) to improve their biopharmaceutical properties (mainly increasing local bioavailability and reducing systemic toxicity). The main biopharmaceutical advantages of patches compared to traditional oral dosage forms are their excellent bioadhesive properties and their increased drug residence time, modified and unidirectional drug release, improved local bioavailability and safety profile, additional pain receptor protection, and patient friendliness. This review describes the main approaches that can be used for the pharmaceutical R&D of oromucosal patches with improved physicochemical, mechanical, and pharmacological properties. The review mainly focuses on ways to increase the bioadhesion of oromucosal patches and to modify drug release, as well as ways to improve local bioavailability and safety by developing unidirectional -release poly-layer patches. Various techniques for obtaining patches and their influence on the structure and properties of the resulting dosage forms are also presented.

From Static to Dynamic: A Review on the Role of Mucus Heterogeneity in Particle and Microbial Transport

Mucus layers (McLs) are on the front line of the human defense system that protect us from foreign abiotic/biotic particles (e.g., airborne virus SARS-CoV-2) and lubricates our organs. Recently, the impact of McLs on human health (e.g., nutrient absorption and drug delivery) and diseases (e.g., infections and cancers) has been studied extensively, yet their mechanisms are still not fully understood due to their high variety among organs and individuals. We characterize these variances as the heterogeneity of McLs, which lies in the thickness, composition, and physiology, making the systematic research on the roles of McLs in human health and diseases very challenging. To advance mucosal organoids and develop effective drug delivery systems, a comprehensive understanding of McLs' heterogeneity and how it impacts mucus physiology is urgently needed. When the role of airway mucus in the penetration and transmission of coronavirus (CoV) is considered, this understanding may also enable a better explanation and prediction of the CoV's behavior. Hence, in this Review, we summarize the variances of McLs among organs, health conditions, and experimental settings as well as recent advances in experimental measurements, data analysis, and model development for simulations.

Surface Modification of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles

There is a growing interest in the development of lipid-based nanocarriers for multiple purposes, including the recent increase of these nanocarriers as vaccine components during the COVID-19 pandemic. The number of studies that involve the surface modification of nanocarriers to improve their performance (increase the delivery of a therapeutic to its target site with less off-site accumulation) is enormous. The present review aims to provide an overview of various methods associated with lipid nanoparticle grafting, including techniques used to separate grafted nanoparticles from unbound ligands or to characterize grafted nanoparticles. We also provide a critical perspective on the usefulness and true impact of these modifications on overcoming different biological barriers, with our prediction on what to expect in the near future in this field.

Na+/Ca2+ induced the migration of soy hull polysaccharides in the mucus layer in vitro

This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of Na⁺/Ca²⁺-induced soy hull polysaccharide (SHP) migration in the mucus layer. The viscosity, potential, microstructure, SHP migration, and metabolite migration were analyzed. The results showed that Na⁺ had little effect on the viscosity of polysaccharides, while Ca²⁺ increased the viscosity of polysaccharides. Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ promoted the migration of SHP particles by reducing the zeta potential, while they decreased the migration of SHP chyle particles by increasing the aggregation. SHP was fermented by gut microbiota to produce a large number of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Compared with Ca²⁺, Na⁺ increased the migration of total SCFAs in the mucus layer. The high-Na⁺/Ca²⁺ mucus internal environment had a specific effect on the transport of nutrients in the intestine.

Current Advances in Multifunctional Nanocarriers Based on Marine Polysaccharides for Colon Delivery of Food Polyphenols

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has been considered as a chronic disease that is difficult to cure and needs lifelong treatment. Marine polysaccharides with good biocompatibility and biodegradability, mucoadhesion, sensitivity to external stimuli, and targeting ability can be used as wall materials for oral colon-targeted delivery of polyphenols in nutrition intervention of IBD. This manuscript reviewed the latest progress in the design, preparation, and characterization of marine polysaccharides-derived multifunctional nanocarriers for polyphenol colon delivery. Chitosan, sodium alginate, chondroitin sulfate, and hyaluronic acid were discussed in the preparation of polyphenol delivery systems. The design strategy, synthesis methods, and structure characterization of multifunctional polyphenol carriers including stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, mucoadhesive and mucus-penetrating nanocarriers, colon targeted nanocarriers, and bioactive compounds codelivery nanocarriers were reviewed in the alleviation of IBD. The research perspectives in the preparation and characterization of delivery carriers using marine polysaccharide as materials were proposed for their potential application in food bioactive components.

Carrier-free micellar CpG interacting with cell membrane for enhanced immunological treatment of HIV-1

Unmethylated CpG motifs activate toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), leading to sequence- and species-specific immune stimulation. Here, we engineered a CpG oligodeoxyribonucleotide (ODN) with multiple hydrophobic moieties, so-called lipid-modified uracil, which resulted in a facile micelle formation of the stimulant. The self-assembled CpG nanostructure (U4CpG) containing the ODN 2216 sequence was characterized by various spectroscopic and microscopic methods together with molecular dynamics simulations. Next, we evaluated the nano-immunostimulant for enhancement of anti-HIV immunity. U4CpG treatment induced activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) and natural killer (NK) cells in healthy human peripheral blood, which produced type I interferons (IFNs) and IFN-γ in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Moreover, we validated the activation and promotion efficacy of U4CpG in patient-derived blood cells, and HIV-1 spread was significantly suppressed by a low dosage of the immunostimulant. Furthermore, U4CpG-treated PBMC cultured medium elicited transcription of latent HIV-1 in U1 cells indicating that U4CpG reversed HIV-1 latency. Thus, the functions of U4CpG in eradicating HIV-1 by enhancing immunity and reversing latency make the material a potential candidate for clinical studies dealing with viral infection.

Mussel Inspired Chemistry and Bacteria Derived Polymers for Oral Mucosal Adhesion and Drug Delivery

Ulceration of the oral mucosa is common, can arise at any age and as a consequence of the pain lessens enjoyment and quality of life. Current treatment options often involve the use of topical corticosteroids with poor drug delivery systems and inadequate contact time. In order to achieve local controlled delivery to the lesion with optimal adhesion, we utilized a simple polydopamine chemistry technique inspired by mussels to replicate their adhesive functionality. This was coupled with production of a group of naturally produced polymers, known as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) as the delivery system. Initial work focused on the synthesis of PHA using Pseudomonas mendocina CH50; once synthesized and extracted from the bacteria, the PHAs were solvent processed into films. Polydopamine coating was subsequently achieved by immersing the solvent cast film in a polymerized dopamine solution. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) spectroscopy confirmed functionalization of the PHA films via the presence of amine groups. Further characterization of the samples was carried out via surface energy measurements and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) micrographs for surface topography. An adhesion test via reverse compression testing directly assessed adhesive properties and revealed an increase in polydopamine coated samples. To further identify the effect of surface coating, LIVE/DEAD imaging and Alamar Blue metabolic activity evaluated attachment and proliferation of fibroblasts on the biofilm surfaces, with higher cell growth in favor of the coated samples. Finally, in vivo biocompatibility was investigated in a rat model where the polydopamine coated PHA showed less inflammatory response over time compared to uncoated samples with sign of neovascularization. In conclusion, this simple mussel inspired polydopamine chemistry introduces a step change in bio-surface functionalization and holds great promise for the treatment of oral conditions.

Applications of nanotechnology in virus detection, tracking, and infection mechanisms

Viruses are among the most infectious pathogens, responsible for the highest death toll around the world. Lack of effective clinical drug for most of the viruses emphasizes the rapid and accurate diagnosis at early stages of infection to prevent rapid spread of the pathogens. Nanotechnology is an emerging field with applications in various domains, where nano‐biomedical science has many significant contributions such as effective delivery of drugs/therapeutic molecules to specific organs, imaging, sensitive detection of virus, and their accurate tracking in host cells. The nanomaterials reported for virus detection and tracking mainly include magnetic and gold NPs, ZnO/Pt‐Pd, graphene, and quantum dots (QDs). In addition, the single virus tracking technology (SVT) allowed to track the life cycle stages of an individual virus for better understanding of their dynamics within the living cells. Inorganic as well as non‐metallic fluorescent materials share the advantages of high photochemical stability, a wide range of light absorption curves and polychromatic emission. Hence, are considered as potential fluorescent nano‐probes for SVT. However, there are still some challenges: (i) clinical false positive rate of some detection methods is still high; (ii) in the virus tracking process, less adaptability of QDs owing to larger size, flicker, and possible interference with virus function; and (iii) in vivo tracking of a single virus, in real time needs further refinement. In the future, smaller, non‐toxic, and chemically stable nanomaterials are needed to improve the efficiency and accuracy of detection, and monitoring of virus infections to curb the mortalities.

This article is categorized under:

Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease

Biology‐Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus‐Based Structures

Nano-based drug delivery optimization for tuberculosis treatment: A review

Regardless of advanced technology and innovation, infectious diseases continue to be one of the extreme health challenges in modern world. Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the top ten causes of deaths worldwide and the leading cause of death from a single infectious agent. The conventional TB drug therapy requires a long term treatment with frequent and multiple drug dosing with a stiff administration schedule, which results in low patient compliance. This eventually leads to the recurrence of the infection and the emergence of multiple drug resistance. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop more successful and effective strategies to overcome the problems of drug resistance, duration of treatment course and devotion to treatment. Nanotechnology has considerable potential for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of infectious diseases including TB. The main advantages of nanoparticles to be used as drug carriers are their small size, high stability, enhanced delivery of hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, intracellular delivery of macromolecules, targeted delivery of drugs to specific cells or tissues, and the feasibility of various drug administration routes. Moreover, these carriers are adapted to facilitate controlled, slow, and persistent drug release from the matrix. Above properties of nanoparticles permit the improvement of drug bioavailability and reduction of dosing frequency and may reduce the toxicity and resolve the problem of low adherence to the prescribed therapy. In this review, various types of nanocarriers have been evaluated as promising drug delivery systems for different administration routes and main research outcomes in this area have been discussed.

New nanocarried phenobarbital formulation: Maintains better control of pentylenetetrazole-Induced seizures

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For the first time, phenobarbital was intercalated in the layered double hydroxide.

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This study evaluated the slow release efficacy of intercalated phenobarbital.

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The time of the anticonvulsant effect was verified by electroencephalographic records.

This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of slow release phenobarbital in the control of convulsions triggered by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), verifying the time of permanence in the anticonvulsant effect through behavior and electroencephalographic records. A total of 162 male Wistar rats weighing between 100 and 120 g were divided into two groups, one for behavior analysis (n = 90) and biochemistry, and another for the acquisition of electrocorticographic record (n = 72). Hepatic enzymes were measured by obtaining a blood sample from the animals studied by means of a biochemical analysis. The procedures for electrode implant and electrocorticographic recordings were performed. The intercalation of phenobarbital in layered double hydroxide (LDH) nanocarrier allowed us to evaluate a new slow release pharmaceutical formulation based on methodologies that have proven longer residence time and lower side effects. This study demonstrates that phenobarbital can be a new perspective pharmaceutical formulation.

Aptamer Hybrid Nanocomplexes as Targeting Components for Antibiotic/Gene Delivery Systems and Diagnostics: A Review

With the passage of time and more advanced societies, there is a greater emergence and incidence of disease and necessity for improved treatments. In this respect, nowadays, aptamers, with their better efficiency at diagnosing and treating diseases than antibodies, are at the center of attention. Here, in this review, we first investigate aptamer function in various fields (such as the detection and remedy of pathogens, modification of nanoparticles, antibiotic delivery and gene delivery). Then, we present aptamer-conjugated nanocomplexes as the main and efficient factor in gene delivery. Finally, we focus on the targeted co-delivery of genes and drugs by nanocomplexes, as a new exciting approach for cancer treatment in the decades ahead to meet our growing societal needs.

Thermoreversible mucoadhesive polymer-drug dispersion for sustained local delivery of budesonide to treat inflammatory disorders of the GI tract

Mucoadhesive drug formulations have been studied and used as alternatives to conventional formulations in order to achieve prolonged retention at the intended site. In addition to providing a controlled drug release, several drugs and disease conditions might benefit from mucoadhesive formulations, contributing to better therapeutic outcomes. Here, we describe the development and the in vitro/in vivo characterization of a mucoadhesive in situ gellifying formulation using PF127, a thermo reversible polymer, entrapping budesonide (BUD), a potent corticosteroid used for the treatment of a wide range of inflammatory diseases, including those affecting mucosas, such as in the GI tract. PF127 formulations (15-17%) were successfully prepared by a cold method as a thermo reversible in situ gelling dispersion for mucosal drug delivery, as confirmed by DSC. Sol-gel temperatures of PF127 formulations (25-39 °C) were observed by dynamic gelation and determined by microrheology and oscillatory rheometry. X-ray diffractograms and TEM images showed that BUD was completely solubilized within the polymeric micelles. In vitro, the gels showed 5-14 g force of mucoadhesion, and the ex vivo studies confirmed that the formulation efficiently adhered to the mucosa. Histopathological analysis combined with fluorescence images and ex vivo intestinal permeation confirmed that the formulation remained on the TGI mucosa for at least 4 h after administration. In vivo studies conducted in a murine model of intestinal mucositis demonstrated that the 16% PF127 BUD formulation was able to resolve the inflammatory injury in the intestinal mucosa. Results demonstrate that fine-tuning of PF127 formulations along with adequate selection of the drug agent, thorough characterization of the dispersions and their interactions with biological interfaces leads to the development of effective controlled drug delivery systems targeted to GI inflammatory diseases.

Delivery of tacrolimus with cationic lipid-assisted nanoparticles for ulcerative colitis therapy

Oral drug delivery with nanoparticles has demonstrated great potential for drugs with poor bioavailability. Efficient delivery is possible by overcoming both the mucus and epithelial barrier of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Cationic lipid-assisted nanoparticles (CLANs), which are composed of amphiphilic block copolymers and cationic lipids, have been well studied and have been proved beneficial for drug delivery. In this study, CLANs prepared by poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(lactic acid) (PEG-b-PLA) and 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propanechloride (DOTAP) or N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-N-methyl-N-(2-cholesteryloxycarbonyl aminoethyl)ammoniumbromide (BHEM-Chol) were used for oral delivery of tacrolimus (FK506) for ulcerative colitis treatment. The average size of these nanoparticles is around 110 nm and the zeta-potential is 35 mV. These nanoparticles maintained their size in buffer solutions of pH 1.2 and 6.8, and slowly release the encapsulated drug. CLANs can be accumulated in the colon and transported through the epithelium in the colitis model by dextran sulfate sodium salt (DSS), leading to attenuation of DSS-induced colitis.

High frequency acoustic permeabilisation of drugs through tissue for localised mucosal delivery

The majority of infectious diseases enter the body through mucosal membranes that line the ocular, nasal, oral, vaginal and rectal surfaces. As infections can be effectively prevented by instigating a local immune response in the immunocyte-rich regions of the mucosa, an efficacious route of vaccine administration is to directly target their delivery to these surfaces. It is nevertheless challenging to provide sufficient driving force to penetrate both the mucus lining as well as the epithelial barrier of the mucosal surfaces, which are designed to effectively keep foreign entities out, but not excessively such that the therapeutic agent penetrates deeper into the vascularised submucosal regions where they are mostly taken up by the systemic circulation, thus resulting in a far weaker immune response. In this work, we demonstrate the possibility of controllably localising and hence maximising the delivery of both small and large molecule model therapeutic agents in the mucosa of a porcine buccal model using high frequency acoustics. Unlike their low (kHz order) frequency bulk ultrasonic counterpart, these high frequency (>10 MHz) surface waves do not generate cavitation, which leads to large molecular penetration depths beyond the 100 μm order thick mucosal layer, and which has been known to cause considerable cellular/tissue damage and hence scarring. Through system parameters such as the acoustic irradiation frequency, power and exposure duration, we show that it is possible to tune the penetration depth such that over 95% of the delivered drug are localised within the mucosal layer, whilst preserving their structural integrity.