Nanoantibiotics: a new paradigm for the treatment of surgical infection

Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation of wastewater microorganisms by halogenated indole derivative capped zinc oxide

Novel 5-bromoindole (5B)-capped zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (5BZN) were synthesized to improve the antibacterial, antibiofilm, and disinfection processes for the control of microorganisms in wastewater treatment. When exposed to 5BZN, the biofilm density and cell attachment were reduced dramatically, as measured by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The 5BZN were also investigated for photodynamic treatment of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria and toxicity. The combination of 5B and ZnO exhibited strong antibacterial and antibiofilm activities against MDR bacteria even at low doses (20 μg/mL). After 12.5 mW/cm² blue LED irradiation, the composite 5BZN showed superior photodynamic inactivation of two wastewater MDR, Enterobacter tabaci E2 and Klebsiella quasipneumoniae SC3, with cell densities reduced by 3.9 log CFU/mL and 4.7 log CFU/mL, respectively, after 120 min. The mechanism of bacterial inactivation was studied using a scavenging investigation, and H₂O₂ was identified mainly as the reactive species for bacterial inactivation. The 5BZN exhibited higher photodynamic inactivation towards the total coliform bacteria in wastewater effluents under a blue LED light intensity of 12.5 mW/cm² with almost complete inactivation of the coliform bacteria cells within 40 min. Furthermore, when 5BZN (100 mg/L) was added to the reactor, the level of tetracycline antibiotic degradation was increased by 63.6% after 120 min. The toxicity test, animal model nematode studies and seed germination assays, showed that 5BZN is harmless, highlighting its tremendous potential as a self-healing agent in large-scale photodynamic disinfection processes.

Biogenic Preparation, Characterization, and Biomedical Applications of Chitosan Functionalized Iron Oxide Nanocomposite

Chitosan (CS) functionalization over nanomaterials has gained more attention in the biomedical field due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and enhanced properties. In the present study, CS functionalized iron (II) oxide nanocomposite (CS/FeO NC) was prepared using Sida acuta leaf extract by a facile and eco-friendly green chemistry route. Phyto-compounds of S. acuta leaf were used as a reductant to prepare CS/FeO NC. The existence of CS and FeO crystalline peaks in CS/FeO NC was confirmed by XRD. FE-SEM analysis revealed that the prepared CS/FeO NC were spherical with a 10–100 nm average size. FTIR analyzed the existence of CS and metal-oxygen bands in the prepared NC. The CS/FeO NC showed the potential bactericidal activity against E. coli, B. subtilis, and S. aureus pathogens. Further, CS/FeO NC also exhibited the dose-dependent anti-proliferative property against human lung cancer cells (A549). Thus, the obtained outcomes revealed that the prepared CS/FeO NC could be a promising candidate in the biomedical sector to inhibit the growth of bacterial pathogens and lung cancer cells.

Metallic Nanoparticles-Friends or Foes in the Battle against Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria?

The rapid spread of antibiotic resistances among bacteria demands novel strategies for infection control, and metallic nanoparticles appear as promising tools because of their unique size and tunable properties that allow their antibacterial effects to be maximized. Furthermore, their diverse mechanisms of action towards multiple cell components have suggested that bacteria could not easily develop resistance against nanoparticles. However, research published over the last decade has proven that bacteria can indeed evolve stable resistance mechanisms upon continuous exposure to metallic nanoparticles. In this review, we summarize the currently known individual and collective strategies employed by bacteria to cope with metallic nanoparticles. Importantly, we also discuss the adverse side effects that bacterial exposure to nanoparticles may have on antibiotic resistance dissemination and that might constitute a challenge for the implementation of nanoparticles as antibacterial agents. Overall, studies discussed in this review point out that careful management of these very promising antimicrobials is necessary to preserve their efficacy for infection control.

Biofabricated Fatty Acids-Capped Silver Nanoparticles as Potential Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antibiofilm and Anticancer Agents

The current study demonstrates the synthesis of fatty acids (FAs) capped silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using aqueous poly-herbal drug Liv52 extract (PLE) as a reducing, dispersing and stabilizing agent. The NPs were characterized by various techniques and used to investigate their potent antibacterial, antibiofilm, antifungal and anticancer activities. GC-MS analysis of PLE shows a total of 37 peaks for a variety of bio-actives compounds. Amongst them, n-hexadecanoic acid (21.95%), linoleic acid (20.45%), oleic acid (18.01%) and stearic acid (13.99%) were found predominately and most likely acted as reducing, stabilizing and encapsulation FAs in LIV-AgNPs formation. FTIR analysis of LIV-AgNPs shows some other functional bio-actives like proteins, sugars and alkenes in the soft PLE corona. The zone of inhibition was 10.0 ± 2.2-18.5 ± 1.0 mm, 10.5 ± 2.5-22.5 ± 1.5 mm and 13.7 ± 1.0-16.5 ± 1.2 against P. aeruginosa, S. aureus and C. albicans, respectively. LIV-AgNPs inhibit biofilm formation in a dose-dependent manner i.e., 54.4% ± 3.1%-10.12% ± 2.3% (S. aureus), 72.7% ± 2.2%-23.3% ± 5.2% (P. aeruginosa) and 85.4% ± 3.3%-25.6% ± 2.2% (C. albicans), and SEM analysis of treated planktonic cells and their biofilm biomass validated the fitness of LIV-AgNPs in future nanoantibiotics. In addition, as prepared FAs rich PLE capped AgNPs have also exhibited significant (p < 0.05 *) antiproliferative activity against cultured HCT-116 cells. Overall, this is a very first demonstration on employment of FAs rich PLE for the synthesis of highly dispersible, stable and uniform sized AgNPs and their antibacterial, antifungal, antibiofilm and anticancer efficacy.

Futuristic Non-antibiotic Therapies to Combat Antibiotic Resistance: A Review

The looming problem of resistance to antibiotics in microorganisms is a global health concern. The drug-resistant microorganisms originating from anthropogenic sources and commercial livestock farming have posed serious environmental and health challenges. Antibiotic-resistant genes constituting the environmental "resistome" get transferred to human and veterinary pathogens. Hence, deciphering the origin, mechanism and extreme of transfer of these genetic factors into pathogens is extremely important to develop not only the therapeutic interventions to curtail the infections, but also the strategies to avert the menace of microbial drug-resistance. Clinicians, researchers and policymakers should jointly come up to develop the strategies to prevent superfluous exposure of pathogens to antibiotics in non-clinical settings. This article highlights the present scenario of increasing antimicrobial-resistance in pathogenic bacteria and the clinical importance of unconventional or non-antibiotic therapies to thwart the infectious pathogenic microorganisms.

Self-healing functionalization of sulfonated hafnium oxide and copper oxide nanocomposite for effective biocidal control of multidrug-resistant bacteria

The combination of copper and sulfonated hafnium oxide nanoparticles could be used as an alternative antimicrobial agent to combat multidrug resistant bacteria and membrane biofouling.

Antibiotics in Food Chain: The Consequences for Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotics have been used as essential therapeutics for nearly 100 years and, increasingly, as a preventive agent in the agricultural and animal industry. Continuous use and misuse of antibiotics have provoked the development of antibiotic resistant bacteria that progressively increased mortality from multidrug-resistant bacterial infections, thereby posing a tremendous threat to public health. The goal of our review is to advance the understanding of mechanisms of dissemination and the development of antibiotic resistance genes in the context of nutrition and related clinical, agricultural, veterinary, and environmental settings. We conclude with an overview of alternative strategies, including probiotics, essential oils, vaccines, and antibodies, as primary or adjunct preventive antimicrobial measures or therapies against multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. The solution for antibiotic resistance will require comprehensive and incessant efforts of policymakers in agriculture along with the development of alternative therapeutics by experts in diverse fields of microbiology, biochemistry, clinical research, genetic, and computational engineering.

Enhanced eradication of intracellular and biofilm-residing methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) reservoirs with hybrid nanoparticles delivering rifampicin

Osteomyelitis carries a high risk of recurrence even after extended, aggressive antibiotic therapy. One of the key challenges is to eradicate the reservoirs of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) inside the host bone cells and their biofilms. Our goal is to develop rifampicin loaded lipid-polymer hybrid nanocarriers (Rf-LPN) and evaluate if they can achieve enhanced rifampicin delivery to eradicate these intracellular and biofilm-residing MRSA. After optimization of the composition, Rf-LPN demonstrated size around 110 nm in diameter that remained stable in serum-supplemented medium, drug payload up to 11.7% and sustained rifampicin release for 2 weeks. When comparing Rf-LPN with free rifampicin, moderate but significant (p < 0.05) improvement of the activities against three osteomyelitis-causing bacteria (USA300-0114, CDC-587, RP-62A) in planktonic form were observed. In comparison, the enhancements in the activities against the biofilms and intracellular MRSA by Rf-LPN were even more substantial. The MBEC50 values against USA300-0114, CDC-587, and RP-62A were 42 vs 155, 70 vs 388, and 265 ng/ml vs over 400 ng/ml, respectively, and up to 18.5-fold reduction in the intracellular MRSA counts in osteoblasts was obtained. Confocal microscope images confirmed extensive accumulation of Rf-LPN inside the biofilm matrix and MRSA-infected osteoblasts. Overall, in this proof-of-concept study we have developed and validated the strategy to exploit the nanoparticle-cell and nanoparticle-biofilm interactions with a new rifampicin nanoformulation for prevention of osteomyelitis recurrence and chronicity caused by the elusive MRSA.

Triclosan-based supramolecular hydrogels as nanoantibiotics for enhanced antibacterial activity

With the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria, conventional antibiotics are becoming increasingly ineffective for the treatment of bacterial infections. Nanomaterial-modified antibiotics, denoted as "nanoantibiotics", can usually circumvent most of the shortcomings of conventional antibiotics, thus improving antibacterial activities. Here, we developed triclosan-based supramolecular hydrogel nanoantibiotics by conjugating small molecule antibiotic triclosan (TCS) to self-assembling peptides. The resultant nanoantibiotics presented many beneficial characteristics: (i) a stable three-dimensional nanofiber structure; (ii) increased TCS solubility by 850-fold; (iii) acid-responsive TCS release; (iv) favorable biocompatibility. In consequence, the nanoantibiotics showed potent in vitro broad-spectrum antibacterial activities against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria based on the cooperative effect of antibiotic TCS and the nanostructure-induced bacterial membrane disruption. Furthermore, the TCS-based supramolecular hydrogel nanoantibiotics exhibited enhanced antibacterial activities with low side effects, according to the in vivo antibacterial evaluation at the macro and micro level. Therefore, the simple and effective hydrogel nanoantibiotics developed here hold great potential for the treatment of intractable bacterial infections.

Biological Safe Gold Nanoparticle-Modified Dental Aligner Prevents the Porphyromonas gingivalis Biofilm Formation

Oral microbiology could directly influence overall health. Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) is a highly pathogenic bacterium that causes periodontitis and other related systematic diseases, including Alzheimer's disease. Orthodontic devices (e.g., invisalign aligner) is commonly used in populations with periodontitis who are also at a high risk of systematic diseases. In this study, newly explored antibacterial 4,6-diamino-2-pyrimidinethiol-modified gold nanoparticles (AuDAPT) were coated onto aligners. The coated aligners showed favorable antibacterial activity against P. gingivalis. In the presence of the coated aligner, the number of planktonic cells was decreased, and biofilm formation was prevented. This material also showed favorable biocompatibility in vivo and in vitro. This study reveals a new method for treating oral P. gingivalis by coating aligners with AuDAPT, which has typical advantages compared to other treatments for both periodontitis and related systematic diseases.

Understanding the mechanisms of silica nanoparticles for nanomedicine

As a consequence of recent progression in biomedicine and nanotechnology, nanomedicine has emerged rapidly as a new discipline with extensive application of nanomaterials in biology, medicine, and pharmacology. Among the various nanomaterials, silica nanoparticles (SNPs) are particularly promising in nanomedicine applications due to their large specific surface area, adjustable pore size, facile surface modification, and excellent biocompatibility. This paper reviews the synthesis of SNPs and their recent usage in drug delivery, biomedical imaging, photodynamic and photothermal therapy, and other applications. In addition, the possible adverse effects of SNPs in nanomedicine applications are reviewed from reported in vitro and in vivo studies. Finally, the potential opportunities and challenges for the future use of SNPs are discussed.

This article is categorized under:

Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology

Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies

Cell Membrane-Based Biomimetic Nanoparticles and the Immune System: Immunomodulatory Interactions to Therapeutic Applications

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have been synthesized from a wide array of materials. The therapeutic success of these platforms hinges upon their ability to favorably interact with the biological environment (both systemically and locally) and recognize the diseased target tissue. The immune system, composed of a highly coordinated organization of cells trained to recognize foreign bodies, represents a key mediator of these interactions. Although components of this system may act as a barrier to nanoparticle (NP) delivery, the immune system can also be exploited to target and trigger signaling cues that facilitate the therapeutic response stemming from systemic administration of NPs. The nano-bio interface represents the key facilitator of this communication exchange, where the surface properties of NPs govern their in vivo fate. Cell membrane-based biomimetic nanoparticles have emerged as one approach to achieve targeted drug delivery by actively engaging and communicating with the biological milieu. In this review, we will highlight the relationship between these biomimetic nanoparticles and the immune system, emphasizing the role of tuning the nano-bio interface in the immunomodulation of diseases. We will also discuss the therapeutic applications of this approach with biomimetic nanoparticles, focusing on specific diseases ranging from cancer to infectious diseases. Lastly, we will provide a critical evaluation on the current state of this field of cell membrane-based biomimetic nanoparticles and its future directions in immune-based therapy.

Antibacterial and photocatalytic activities of 5-nitroindole capped bimetal nanoparticles against multidrug resistant bacteria

The emergence of antibiotic resistance to commercially- available antibiotics is becoming a major health crisis worldwide. Non-antibiotic strategies are needed to combat biofilm-associated infectious diseases caused by multidrug resistant (MDR) bacterial pathogens. In this study, MBR1 was isolated from a membrane bioreactor used in wastewater treatment plants, and the resistance profile was explored. 5-Nitroindole (5 N)-capped CuO/ZnO bimetal nanoparticles (5 NNP) were synthesized using a one pot method to improve the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of 5 N against Gram-negative (Escherichia coli ATCC700376 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA01) and positive (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC6538) human pathogens. 5 NNP containing 1 mM of 5 N exhibited strong antibacterial and antibiofilm properties to most MDR bacteria. In addition, the photocatalytic activity of CuO/ZnO reduced bacterial cell growth by 1.8 log CFU/mL maximum when exposed to visible light. Scanning electron microscopy showed that 5 NNP reduced the cell density and biofilm attachment of MBR1 by >90% under static conditions. In addition to the antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities, 5 NNP inhibited the persister cell formation of MDR bacterial strains P. aeruginosa, MBR1, E. coli and S. aureus. Therefore, it is speculated that 5 NNP potentially inhibits biofilm and persister cells; hence, 5 NNP could be an alternative agent to combat MDR infectious diseases using a non-antibiotic therapeutic approach.

Gold Nanoclusters-Coated Orthodontic Devices Can Inhibit the Formation of Streptococcus mutans Biofilm

Oral health is an issue that has attracted increasing attention recently. Poor oral hygiene may induce the formation of oral biofilm on orthodontic devices, and cause gingivitis and dental caries. Here, we present a strategy for modifying orthodontic devices (e.g., invisalign aligner) with quaternary ammonium (QA)-modified gold nanoclusters (QA-GNCs) as an antibiotic reagent to prevent bacterial contamination and biofilm formation. The QA-GNCs-coated aligner can efficiently inhibit the adhesion of cariogenic pathogenic Streptococcus mutans and the formation of biofilm. Moreover, the antibacterial activity of the coated QA-GNCs can be maintained for at least 3 months and after repeated usage (>3 cycles). Furthermore, the QA-GNCs coating shows excellent biosafety confirmed by the cell viability test, the hemolysis assay, and animal experiments. Our strategy for antibacterial coating has the advantages of broad applications, low cost, good stability, high antibacterial efficiency, good biocompatibility, and low risk of antibiotic contamination, which could be particularly useful in preventing infections involving implantable medical devices or wearable electronics.

Exosome-like Nanovectors for Drug Delivery in Cancer

Cancer treatment still represents a formidable challenge, despite substantial advancements in available therapies being made over the past decade. One major issue is poor therapeutic efficacy due to lack of specificity and low bioavailability. The progress of nanotechnology and the development of a variety of nanoplatforms have had a significant impact in improving the therapeutic outcome of chemotherapeutics. Nanoparticles can overcome various biological barriers and localize at tumor site, while simultaneously protecting a therapeutic cargo and increasing its circulation time. Despite this, due to their synthetic origin, nanoparticles are often detected by the immune system and preferentially sequestered by filtering organs. Exosomes have recently been investigated as suitable substitutes for the shortcomings of nanoparticles due to their biological compatibility and particularly small size (i.e., 30-150 nm). In addition, exosomes have been found to play important roles in cell communication, acting as natural carriers of biological cargoes throughout the body. This review aims to highlight the use of exosomes as drug delivery vehicles for cancer and showcases the various attempts used to exploit exosomes with a focus on the delivery of chemotherapeutics and nucleic acids.

Nanoantibiotics: A Novel Rational Approach to Antibiotic Resistant Infections

Background:

The main drawbacks for using conventional antimicrobial agents are the development of multiple drug resistance due to the use of high concentrations of antibiotics for extended periods. This vicious cycle often generates complications of persistent infections, and intolerable antibiotic toxicity. The problem is that while all new discovered antimicrobials are effective and promising, they remain as only short-term solutions to the overall challenge of drug-resistant bacteria.

Objective:

Recently, nanoantibiotics (nAbts) have been of tremendous interest in overcoming the drug resistance developed by several pathogenic microorganisms against most of the commonly used antibiotics. Compared with free antibiotic at the same concentration, drug delivered via a nanoparticle carrier has a much more prominent inhibitory effect on bacterial growth, and drug toxicity, along with prolonged drug release. Additionally, multiple drugs or antimicrobials can be packaged within the same smart polymer which can be designed with stimuli-responsive linkers. These stimuli-responsive nAbts open up the possibility of creating multipurpose and targeted antimicrobials. Biofilm formation still remains the leading cause of conventional antibiotic treatment failure. In contrast to conventional antibiotics nAbts easily penetrate into the biofilm, and selectively target biofilm matrix constituents through the introduction of bacteria specific ligands. In this context, various nanoparticles can be stabilized and functionalized with conventional antibiotics. These composites have a largely enhanced bactericidal efficiency compared to the free antibiotic.

Conclusion:

Nanoparticle-based carriers deliver antibiotics with better biofilm penetration and lower toxicity, thus combating bacterial resistance. However, the successful adaptation of nanoformulations to clinical practice involves a detailed assessment of their safety profiles and potential immunotoxicity.

Cell membrane protein functionalization of nanoparticles as a new tumor-targeting strategy

Nanoparticles have seen considerable popularity as effective tools for drug delivery. However, non-specific targeting continues to remain a challenge. Recently, biomimetic nanoparticles have emerged as an innovative solution that exploits biologically-derived components to improve therapeutic potential. Specifically, cell membrane proteins extracted from various cells (i.e., leukocytes, erythrocytes, platelets, mesenchymal stem cells, cancer) have shown considerable promise in bestowing nanoparticles with increased circulation and targeting efficacy. Traditional nanoparticles can be detected and removed by the immune system which significantly hinders their clinical success. Biomimicry has been proposed as a promising approach to overcome these limitations. In this review, we highlight the current trends in biomimetic nanoparticles and describe how they are being used to increase their chemotherapeutic effect in cancer treatment.

Antimicrobial Effects of Biogenic Nanoparticles

Infectious diseases pose one of the greatest health challenges in the medical world. Though numerous antimicrobial drugs are commercially available, they often lack effectiveness against recently developed multidrug resistant (MDR) microorganisms. This results in high antibiotic dose administration and a need to develop new antibiotics, which in turn requires time, money, and labor investments. Recently, biogenic metallic nanoparticles have proven their effectiveness against MDR microorganisms, individually and in synergy with the current/conventional antibiotics. Importantly, biogenic nanoparticles are easy to produce, facile, biocompatible, and environmentally friendly in nature. In addition, biogenic nanoparticles are surrounded by capping layers, which provide them with biocompatibility and long-term stability. Moreover, these capping layers provide an active surface for interaction with biological components, facilitated by free active surface functional groups. These groups are available for modification, such as conjugation with antimicrobial drugs, genes, and peptides, in order to enhance their efficacy and delivery. This review summarizes the conventional antibiotic treatments and highlights the benefits of using nanoparticles in combating infectious diseases.

Trends towards Biomimicry in Theranostics

Over the years, imaging and therapeutic modalities have seen considerable progress as a result of advances in nanotechnology. Theranostics, or the marrying of diagnostics and therapy, has increasingly been employing nano-based approaches to treat cancer. While first-generation nanoparticles offered considerable promise in the imaging and treatment of cancer, toxicity and non-specific distribution hindered their true potential. More recently, multistage nanovectors have been strategically designed to shield and carry a payload to its intended site. However, detection by the immune system and sequestration by filtration organs (i.e., liver and spleen) remains a major obstacle. In an effort to circumvent these biological barriers, recent trends have taken inspiration from biology. These bioinspired approaches often involve the use of biologically-derived cellular components in the design and fabrication of biomimetic nanoparticles. In this review, we provide insight into early nanoparticles and how they have steadily evolved to include bioinspired approaches to increase their theranostic potential.

Proteolytic Nanoparticles Replace a Surgical Blade by Controllably Remodeling the Oral Connective Tissue

Surgical blades are common medical tools. However, blades cannot distinguish between healthy and diseased tissue, thereby creating unnecessary damage, lengthening recovery, and increasing pain. We propose that surgical procedures can rely on natural tissue remodeling tools-enzymes, which are the same tools our body uses to repair itself. Through a combination of nanotechnology and a controllably activated proteolytic enzyme, we performed a targeted surgical task in the oral cavity. More specifically, we engineered nanoparticles that contain collagenase in a deactivated form. Once placed at the surgical site, collagenase was released at a therapeutic concentration and activated by calcium, its biological cofactor that is naturally present in the tissue. Enhanced periodontal remodeling was recorded due to enzymatic cleavage of the supracrestal collagen fibers that connect the teeth to the underlying bone. When positioned in their new orientation, natural tissue repair mechanisms supported soft and hard tissue recovery and reduced tooth relapse. Through the combination of nanotechnology and proteolytic enzymes, localized surgical procedures can now be less invasive.

Inflammation and Cancer: In Medio Stat Nano

Cancer treatment still remains a challenge due to the several limitations of currently used chemotherapeutics, such as their poor pharmacokinetics, unfavorable chemical properties, as well as inability to discriminate between healthy and diseased tissue. Nanotechnology offered potent tools to overcome these limitations. Drug encapsulation within a delivery system permitted i) to protect the payload from enzymatic degradation/ inactivation in the blood stream, ii) to improve the physicochemical properties of poorly water-soluble drugs, like paclitaxel, and iii) to selectively deliver chemotherapeutics to the cancer lesions, thus reducing the off-target toxicity, and promoting the intracellular internalization. To accomplish this purpose, several strategies have been developed, based on biological and physical changes happening locally and systemically as a consequence of tumorigenesis. Here, we will discuss the role of inflammation in the different steps of tumor development and the strategies based on the use of nanoparticles that exploit the inflammatory pathways in order to selectively target the tumor-associated microenvironment for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes.

Emerging nanotechnology based strategies for diagnosis and therapeutics of urinary tract infections: A review

At present, various diagnostic and therapeutic approaches are available for urinary tract infections. But, still the quest for development of more rapid, accurate and reliable approach is an unending process. The pathogens, especially uropathogens are adapting to new environments and antibiotics day by day rapidly. Therefore, urinary tract infections are evolving as hectic and difficult to eradicate, increasing the economic burden to the society. The technological advances should be able to compete the adaptability characteristics of microorganisms to combat their growth in new environments and thereby preventing their infections. Nanotechnology is at present an extensively developing area of immense scientific interest since it has diverse potential applications in biomedical field. Nanotechnology may be combined with cellular therapy approaches to overcome the limitations caused by conventional therapeutics. Nanoantibiotics and drug delivery using nanotechnology are currently growing areas of research in biomedical field. Recently, various categories of antibacterial nanoparticles and nanocarriers for drug delivery have shown their potential in the treatment of infectious diseases. Nanoparticles, compared to conventional antibiotics, are more beneficial in terms of decreasing toxicity, prevailing over resistance and lessening costs. Nanoparticles present long term therapeutic effects since they are retained in body for relatively longer periods. This review focuses on recent advances in the field of nanotechnology, principally emphasizing diagnostics and therapeutics of urinary tract infections.

Bio-inspired engineering of cell- and virus-like nanoparticles for drug delivery

The engineering of future generations of nanodelivery systems aims at the creation of multifunctional vectors endowed with improved circulation, enhanced targeting and responsiveness to the biological environment. Moving past purely bio-inert systems, researchers have begun to create nanoparticles capable of proactively interacting with the biology of the body. Nature offers a wide-range of sources of inspiration for the synthesis of more effective drug delivery platforms. Because the nano-bio-interface is the key driver of nanoparticle behavior and function, the modification of nanoparticles' surfaces allows the transfer of biological properties to synthetic carriers by imparting them with a biological identity. Modulation of these surface characteristics governs nanoparticle interactions with the biological barriers they encounter. Building off these observations, we provide here an overview of virus- and cell-derived biomimetic delivery systems that combine the intrinsic hallmarks of biological membranes with the delivery capabilities of synthetic carriers. We describe the features and properties of biomimetic delivery systems, recapitulating the distinctive traits and functions of viruses, exosomes, platelets, red and white blood cells. By mimicking these biological entities, we will learn how to more efficiently interact with the human body and refine our ability to negotiate with the biological barriers that impair the therapeutic efficacy of nanoparticles.