Targeting cancer with lactoferrin nanoparticles: recent advances

A drug repurposing approach of Atorvastatin calcium for its antiproliferative activity for effective treatment of breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo assessment

Breast cancer, the most common cancer among women, caused over 500,000 deaths in 2020. Conventional treatments are expensive and have severe side effects. Drug repurposing is a novel approach aiming to reposition clinically approved non-cancer drugs into newer cancer treatments. Atorvastatin calcium (ATR Ca) which is used for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia has potential to modulate cell growth and apoptosis. The study aimed at utilizing gelucire-based solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and lactoferrin (Lf) as targeting ligand to enhance tumor targeting of atorvastatin calcium for effective management of breast cancer. Lf-decorated-ATR Ca-SLNs showed acceptable particle size and PDI values <200 nm and 0.35 respectively, entrapment efficiency >90% and sustained drug release profile with 78.97 ± 12.3% released after 24 h. In vitro cytotoxicity study on breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7) showed that Lf-decorated-ATR Ca-SLNs obviously improved anti-tumor activity by 2 to 2.5 folds compared to undecorated ATR Ca-SLNs and free drug. Further, In vivo study was also carried out using Ehrlich breast cancer model in mice. Caspase-3 apoptotic marker revealed superior antineoplastic and apoptosis-inducing activity in the groups treated with ATR Ca-SLNs either decorated/ undecorated with Lf in dosage 10 mg/kg/day p < 0.001 with superior activity for lactoferrin-decorated formulation.

Advancements in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of retinoblastoma

Retinoblastoma (RB) is a prevalent primitive intraocular malignancy in children, particularly in those younger than age 3 years. RB is caused by mutations in the RB1 gene. In developing countries, mortality rates for this type of cancer are still high, whereas industrialized countries have achieved a survival rate of >95%-98%. Untreated, the condition can be fatal, underscoring the importance of early diagnosis. The existing treatments primarily consist of surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. The detrimental effects of radiation and chemotherapeutic drugs have been documented as factors that contribute to increased mortality rates and negatively affect the quality of life for patients. MicroRNA (miRNA), a type of noncoding RNA, exerts a substantial influence on RB development and the emergence of treatment resistance by regulating diverse cellular processes. This review highlights recent developments in the involvement of miRNAs in RB. This encompasses the clinical significance of miRNAs in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of RB. Additionally, this paper examines the regulatory mechanisms of miRNAs in RB and explores potential therapeutic interventions. This paper provides an overview of the current and emerging treatment options for RB, focusing on recent studies investigating the application of different types of nanoparticles for the diagnosis and treatment of this condition.

Drug-Loaded Biomimetic Carriers for Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Therapy: Advances and Perspective

Chemotherapy remains the mainstay of treatment for the lymphoma patient population, despite its relatively poor therapeutic results, high toxicity, and low specificity. With the advancement of biotechnology, the significance of drug-loading biomimetic materials in the medical field has become increasingly evident, attracting extensive attention from the scientific community and the pharmaceutical industry. Given that they can cater to the particular requirements of lymphoma patients, drug-loading biomimetic materials have recently become a potent and promising delivery approach for various applications. This review mainly reviews the recent advancements in the treatment of tumors with biological drug carrier-loaded drugs, outlines the mechanisms of lymphoma development and the diverse treatment modalities currently available, and discusses the merits and limitations of biological drug carriers. What is more, the practical application of biocarriers in tumors is explored by providing examples, and the possibility of loading such organisms with antilymphoma drugs for the treatment of lymphoma is conceived.

Effect of high hydrostatic pressure treatment on the antioxidant activity of lactoferrin before and after gastrointestinal digestion

In this study, high hydrostatic pressure treatment of lactoferrin was used to investigate its effect on the hydrolysis and antioxidant activity of lactoferrin. The results showed that high hydrostatic pressure treatment at 600 MPa increased the exposure level of tryptophan residues of lactoferrin by 82.29%, which significantly altered the tertiary structure of lactoferrin, and this change was observed in scanning electron microscopy as an increase in the contact area of lactoferrin that could be contacted by proteases. Pressure treatments of 400 MPa and above increased the hydrolysis of lactoferrin for gastrointestinal digestion by 21.19%, which increased the release of antioxidant-related amino acids and increased the free radical scavenging capacity of lactoferrin intestinal digestive fluid by 35.12%. Meanwhile, two lactoferrin antioxidant peptides, QAYPNLCQLCK and NCPDKFCLFK, were identified in the lactoferrin intestine digest. These findings indicate that high hydrostatic pressure treatment could be a potentially beneficial method for processing lactoferrin.

Lactoferrin ameliorates carfilzomib-induced renal and pulmonary deficits: Insights to the inflammasome NLRP3/NF-κB and PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β/MAPK axes

AIMS

Carfilzomib, an irreversible proteasome inhibitor, has been increasingly used to treat multiple myeloma worldwide. However, case studies showed its treatment has been associated with cardiac, renal, and pulmonary deleterious effects. Lactoferrin is an iron-binding glycoprotein present in milk. It is a multifunctional protein with antimicrobial activity, antitumor, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. Thus, this study aimed to assess the protective effects of lactoferrin against carfilzomib-induced nephrotoxicity and pulmonary toxicity, in addition to identifying the possible underlying molecular mechanisms.

MAIN METHODS

Mice were treated with lactoferrin (300 mg/kg/day) concomitantly with carfilzomib (4 mg/kg, i.p.) twice weekly for three weeks. Kidney and lung indices, serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), uric acid, kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and histological examination were assessed. In addition, biochemical analyses of the inflammasome NLRP3/NF-κB and PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β/MAPK axes were conducted.

KEY FINDINGS

Treatment with lactoferrin decreased serum levels of creatinine, BUN, uric acid, KIM-1, ALP, AST, and LDH and reversed carfilzomib-induced histological changes in both kidney and lung. The inflammatory markers NLRP3, p65 NF-kB, caspases1, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-18, as well as the MAPK signaling pathway, were significantly reduced in renal and pulmonary tissues of mice following lactoferrin administration. Moreover, lactoferrin significantly counteracted carfilzomib-induced reduced expression of pAkt and pGSK-3β in both renal and pulmonary tissues.

SIGNIFICANCE

The current study suggests lactoferrin might be a promising candidate for ameliorating carfilzomib-induced nephrotoxicity and pulmonary toxicity.

miRNAs as potential game-changers in retinoblastoma: Future clinical and medicinal uses

Retinoblastoma (RB) is a rare tumor in children, but it is the most common primitive intraocular malignancy in childhood age, especially those below three years old. The RB gene (RB1) undergoes mutations in individuals with RB. Although mortality rates remain high in developing countries, the survival rate for this type of cancer is greater than 95-98% in industrialized countries. However, it is lethal if left untreated, so early diagnosis is essential. As a non-coding RNA, miRNA significantly impacts RB development and treatment resistance because it can control various cellular functions. In this review, we illustrate the recent advances in the role of miRNAs in RB. That includes the clinical importance of miRNAs in RB diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. Moreover, the regulatory mechanisms of miRNAs in RB and therapeutic interventions are discussed.

Lactoferrin and Nanotechnology: The Potential for Cancer Treatment

Lactoferrin (Lf)-a glycoprotein of the transferrin family-has been investigated as a promising molecule with diverse applications, including infection inhibition, anti-inflammation, antioxidant properties and immune modulation. Along with that, Lf was found to inhibit the growth of cancerous tumors. Owing to unique properties such as iron-binding and positive charge, Lf could interrupt the cancer cell membrane or influence the apoptosis pathway. In addition, being a common mammalian excretion, Lf offers is promising in terms of targeting delivery or the diagnosis of cancer. Recently, nanotechnology significantly enhanced the therapeutic index of natural glycoproteins such as Lf. Therefore, in the context of this review, the understanding of Lf is summarized and followed by different strategies of nano-preparation, including inorganic nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles and polymer-based nanoparticles in cancer management. At the end of the study, the potential future applications are discussed to pave the way for translating Lf into actual usage.

Folic acid-modified lactoferrin nanoparticles coated with a laminarin layer loaded curcumin with dual-targeting for ulcerative colitis treatment

Curcumin (CUR) is a promising natural compound in ulcerative colitis (UC) treatment, but limited by its low oral bioavailability and poor targeting ability. Therefore, given the targeting action of lactoferrin (LF) by binding to the LF receptors of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) and of folic acid (FA) by binding to the FA receptors of macrophages, we developed an oral dual-targeting nanosystem. Laminarin (LA)-coated, FA-modified LF nanoparticles (NPs) were used to encapsulate CUR (LA/FA/CUR-NPs) with a food-grade, enzyme-sensitive, and dual-targeting capacity. For the generated NPs, LF improved the loading efficiency of CUR (95.08 %). The LA layer could improve the upper gastrointestinal tract stability of the NPs while improve drug release around colon lesion through β-glucanase digestion. Based on the cellular uptake evaluation, FA/CUR-NPs were capable of specifically targeting colonic epithelial cells and macrophages through LF and FA ligands, respectively, to enhance the uptake efficiency. Moreover, based on the advantage of the dual-targeting strategy, oral administration of FA/CUR-NPs obviously reduced colitis symptoms by alleviating inflammation, accelerating colonic mucosal barrier repair and restoring the balance of the intestinal microbiota. This dual-targeted nanodesign corresponded to the multi-bioresponsibilities of CUR, thus offering a promising approach in UC treatment.

Time to Kill and Time to Heal: The Multifaceted Role of Lactoferrin and Lactoferricin in Host Defense

Lactoferrin is an iron-binding glycoprotein present in most human exocrine fluids, particularly breast milk. Lactoferrin is also released from neutrophil granules, and its concentration increases rapidly at the site of inflammation. Immune cells of both the innate and the adaptive immune system express receptors for lactoferrin to modulate their functions in response to it. On the basis of these interactions, lactoferrin plays many roles in host defense, ranging from augmenting or calming inflammatory pathways to direct killing of pathogens. Complex biological activities of lactoferrin are determined by its ability to sequester iron and by its highly basic N-terminus, via which lactoferrin binds to a plethora of negatively charged surfaces of microorganisms and viruses, as well as to mammalian cells, both normal and cancerous. Proteolytic cleavage of lactoferrin in the digestive tract generates smaller peptides, such as N-terminally derived lactoferricin. Lactoferricin shares some of the properties of lactoferrin, but also exhibits unique characteristics and functions. In this review, we discuss the structure, functions, and potential therapeutic uses of lactoferrin, lactoferricin, and other lactoferrin-derived bioactive peptides in treating various infections and inflammatory conditions. Furthermore, we summarize clinical trials examining the effect of lactoferrin supplementation in disease treatment, with a special focus on its potential use in treating COVID-19.

Evaluation of the effect of nano-encapsulated lactoferrin on the expression of Bak and Bax genes in gastric cancer cell line AGS and study of the molecular docking of lactoferrin with these proteins

lactoferrin (Lf) is a glycoprotein with various biological activities, including antibacterial, antiviral, anti-cancer, etc. In the present study, the effect of different concentrations of nano-encapsulated lactoferrin (NE-Lf) on the expression of Bax and Bak genes was evaluated in stomach cancer cell line AGS using real-time PCR technique and cytotoxicity of NE-Lf on the growth cells as well as the molecular mechanism of these two genes and their proteins in the apoptosis pathway and the relationship between lactoferrin and these proteins were investigated by bioinformatics studies. In the viability test, the results showed that the growth inhibition effect of nano-lactoferrin was greater than lactoferrin in both concentrations, and chitosan had no inhibitory effect on the cells. In concentrations of 250 and 500 µg of NE-Lf Bax gene expression increased by 2.3 and 5 times, respectively, and Bak gene expression increased by 1.94 and 1.74 times, respectively. Statistical analysis showed that there is a significant difference in the relative amount of gene expression between the treatments in both genes (P < 0.05). The binding mode of lactoferrin with Bax and Bak proteins was obtained using docking. According to docking results, the N-lobe region of lactoferrin interacts with the Bax protein, as well as the Bak protein. The results show that lactoferrin, in addition to acting on the gene, interacts with Bax and Bak proteins. Since two proteins are components of apoptosis, lactoferrin can induce apoptosis in this way.

Colostrum Proteins in Protection against Therapy-Induced Injuries in Cancer Chemo- and Radiotherapy: A Comprehensive Review

In this article, we review the benefits of application of colostrum and colostrum-derived proteins in animal models and clinical trials that include chemotherapy with antimetabolic drugs, radiotherapy and surgical interventions. A majority of the reported investigations was performed with bovine colostrum (BC) and native bovine or recombinant human lactoferrin (LF), applied alone, in nutraceutics or in combination with probiotics. Apart from reducing side effects of the applied therapeutics, radiation and surgical procedures, BC and LF augmented their efficacy and improved the wellness of patients. In conclusion, colostrum and colostrum proteins, preferably administered with probiotic bacteria, are highly recommended for inclusion to therapeutic protocols in cancer chemo- and radiotherapy as well as during the surgical treatment of cancer patients.

Lactoferrin and its nano-formulations in rare eye diseases

Lactoferrin (LF) is an iron-binding glycoprotein released from mucous secreting cells and neutrophils. LF can be used in a broad range of eye diseases related to the retina, cornea, and optic nerve. The retina is particularly affected by oxidative stress inside the photoreceptor being constantly exposed to light which induces accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) causing damage to photoreceptor recycling. Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and macular degeneration are inherited retinopathies that consist of different disease-causing genes, that cause mutations with highly varied clinical consequences. Age-related macular degeneration is a chronic disease of the retina and one of the major causes of sight loss. This review provides an application of lactoferrin and LF-based nano-formulations or nanoparticles in the field of retinal diseases or corneal diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa, retinoblastoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), keratoconus and uveitis. Several studies have found that lactoferrin's antibacterial activity is not limited to its iron sequestration, but also its ability as a nanoparticle that acts as a carrier to deliver drugs by crossing the blood-retina barrier (BRB) and its involvement in cell cycle control, which is not possible by many transferrin proteins.

Biomimetic multifunctional persistent luminescence nanoprobes for long-term near-infrared imaging and therapy of cerebral and cerebellar gliomas

Glioma is the most common malignant primary brain tumor, and the accurate diagnosis of glioma has always been a challenge. Moreover, cerebellar glioma, which is difficult to be detected by magnetic resonance imaging, is not usually diagnosed until after the appearance of clinical symptoms. In this study, TRZD, a near-infrared (NIR) persistent luminescence (PL) nanoparticle with a dual function of imaging and therapy, was synthesized based on ZnGa₂O₄:Cr³⁺,Sn⁴⁺. TRZD showed excellent rechargeable NIR PL for more than 30 hours in vivo with good tissue penetration for long-term autofluorescence-free imaging. The tumor growth of both the subcutaneous and orthotropic glioma models was significantly inhibited by TRZD. This is the first-time approach using NIR PL nanoprobes for both diagnosis and therapy of glioma. This is also the first-time report of nanotechnology-based diagnosis and therapy of cerebellar gliomas. This study offers a highly promising multifunctional nanoparticle for theranostics of a wide range of brain diseases.

Lactoferrin: A Nutraceutical with Activity against Colorectal Cancer

Homeostasis in the human body results from the tight regulation of several events, since too little inflammation disrupts the process of tissue repair and remodeling, whereas too much exerts a collateral effect by causing tissue damage with life-threatening consequences. In some clinical conditions, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), inflammation functions as a double-edged sword by either enabling or inhibiting cancer development and progression. Generally, cancer develops through evasion mechanisms that regulate cell growth, causing a high rate of uncontrolled proliferation, and mechanisms for evading cell death, such as apoptosis. Moreover, chronic inflammation is a factor that contributes to colorectal cancer (CRC), as observed in individuals with IBD; all these conditions favor an increased rate of angiogenesis and eventual metastasis. Lactoferrin (Lf) is a mammalian iron-binding multifunctional glycoprotein regarded as a natural compound that up- and downregulates both humoral and cellular components of immunity involved in regulating the inflammatory response and maintaining gut homeostasis. Human and bovine Lf share high sequence homology and have very similar antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activities. Bovine Lf from milk is considered a safe molecule and is commercially available in large quantities. This review mainly focuses on the regulatory effects of orally administered bovine Lf on the inflammatory response associated with CRC; this approach indicates that CRC is one of the most frequently diagnosed cancers and affects the intestinal tract with high clinical and epidemiologic relevance. Thus, this review may provide foundations for the potential use of bovine Lf alone or as a natural adjunct agent to increase the effectiveness and reduce the side effects of anticancer chemotherapy.

Functionalized Liposome and Albumin-Based Systems as Carriers for Poorly Water-Soluble Anticancer Drugs: An Updated Review

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. In the available treatments, chemotherapy is one of the most used, but has several associated problems, namely the high toxicity to normal cells and the resistance acquired by cancer cells to the therapeutic agents. The scientific community has been battling against this disease, developing new strategies and new potential chemotherapeutic agents. However, new drugs often exhibit poor solubility in water, which led researchers to develop functionalized nanosystems to carry and, specifically deliver, the drugs to cancer cells, targeting overexpressed receptors, proteins, and organelles. Thus, this review is focused on the recent developments of functionalized nanosystems used to carry poorly water-soluble drugs, with special emphasis on liposomes and albumin-based nanosystems, two major classes of organic nanocarriers with formulations already approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for cancer therapeutics.

The Most Recent Discoveries in Heterocyclic Nanoformulations for Targeted Anticancer Therapy

Every day, new cases of cancer patients whose recovery is delayed by multidrug resistance and chemotherapy side effects are identified, which severely limit treatment options. One of the most recent advances in nanotechnology is the effective usage of nanotechnology as drug carriers for cancer therapy. As a consequence, heterocyclic nanocarriers were put into practice to see whether they could have a better cure with positive results. The potential of a therapeutic agent to meet its desired goal is vital to its success in treating any disease. Heterocyclic moieties are molecules that have a wide variety of chemically therapeutic functions as well as a significant biological activity profile. Heterocyclic nano formulations play an important role in cell physiology and as possible arbitrators for typical biological reactions, making them valuable in cancer research. As a result, experts are working with heterocyclic nanoformulations to discover alternative approaches to treat cancer. Due to their unique physicochemical properties, heterocyclic compounds are real cornerstones in medicinal chemistry and promising compounds for the future drug delivery system. This review briefly explores the therapeutic relevance of heterocyclic compounds in cancer treatment, the various nanoformulations, and actively describes heterocyclic magnetic nano catalysts and heterocyclic moiety, as well as their mode of action, which have favorable anti - cancer effects.

Lactotransferrin Downregulation Serves as a Potential Predictor for the Therapeutic Effectiveness of mTOR Inhibitors in the Metastatic Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma without PTEN Mutation

Approximately 30% of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) patients develop metastatic spread at the first diagnosis. Therefore, identifying a useful biomarker to predict ccRCC metastasis or therapeutic effectiveness in ccRCC patients is urgently needed. Previously, we demonstrated that lactotransferrin (LTF) downregulation enhanced the metastatic potential of ccRCC. Here, we show that LTF expression conversely associates with the mTORC1 activity as simulated by gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA). Moreover, Western blot analyses revealed that the LTF knockdown promoted, but the inclusion of recombinant human LTF protein suppressed, the phosphorylation of Akt/mTOR proteins in the detected ccRCC cells. Kaplan–Meier analyses demonstrated that the signature of combining an upregulated mTORC1 activity with a downregulated LTF expression referred to a worse overall and progression-free survival probabilities and associated with distant cancer metastasis in TCGA ccRCC patients. Furthermore, we found that the LTF-suppressed Akt/mTOR activation triggered an increased formation of autophagy in the highly metastatic ccRCC cells. The addition of autophagy inhibitor 3-methyadenine restored the LTF-suppressed cellular migration ability of highly metastatic ccRCC cells. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses showed that the expression of the LTF and MTORC1 gene set, not the autophagy gene set, could be the useful biomarkers to predict 5-year overall survival rate and cancer progression in ccRCC patients. Significantly, the signature of combining mTORC1 upregulation and LTF downregulation was shown as an independent prognostic factor in a multivariate analysis under the progression-free survival condition using the TCGA ccRCC database. Finally, the treatment with mTOR inhibitor rapamycin predominantly reduced the formation of autophagy and ultimately mitigated the cellular migration ability of ccRCC cells with LTF knockdown. Our findings suggest that LTF downregulation is a biomarker for guiding the use of mTOR inhibitors to combat metastatic ccRCC in the clinic.

Laser-triggered combination therapy by iron sulfide-doxorubicin@functionalized nanozymes for breast cancer therapy

Background

The use of magnetic nanozymes (NZs) with the ability to synchronize gas therapy through photodynamic and chemotherapy in the treatment of breast cancer has received much attention.

Results

Hence, in this study, we designed a bovine lactoferrin-coated iron sulfide NZs containing doxorubicin (abbreviated as: FeS-Dox@bLf NZs) by wet-chemical synthesis method. Then, the physicochemical characteristics of synthesized NZs were explored by several methods. Also, the level of Fe²⁺, H₂S and Dox releases from FeS-Dox@Lf NZs. Also, the cytotoxic effects of FeS-Dox@Lf NZs were investigated by cellular assays. After intravenous injections of NZs and laser irradiation, significant effects of FeS-Dox@Lf NZs on mice weight and tumor status were observed. Afterwards, not only the distribution of Dox in the body was examined by fluorescent, but also the time of Fe clearance and the amount of Dox and Fe retention in vital tissues were determined. The findings confirm that FeS-Dox@Lf NZs, in addition to targeted drug distribution in tumor tissue, resulted in superior therapeutic performance compared to free Dox due to reduced Dox side effects in vital tissues, and increased level of free radicals in 4T1 cells.

Conclusion

Overall, FeS-Dox@Lf NZs with the ability to synchronize chemotherapy and gas therapy raised hopes for more effective treatment of breast cancer.

Graphic abstract

Celecoxib repurposing in cancer therapy: molecular mechanisms and nanomedicine-based delivery technologies

While cancer remains a significant global health problem, advances in cancer biology, deep understanding of its underlaying mechanism and identification of specific molecular targets allowed the development of new therapeutic options. Drug repurposing poses several advantages as reduced cost and better safety compared with new compounds development. COX-2 inhibitors are one of the most promising drug classes for repurposing in cancer therapy. In this review, we provide an overview of the detailed mechanism and rationale of COX-2 inhibitors as anticancer agents and we highlight the most promising research efforts on nanotechnological approaches to enhance COX-2 inhibitors delivery with special focus on celecoxib as the most widely studied agent for chemoprevention or combined with chemotherapeutic and herbal drugs for combating various cancers.