The Potential of Clove Essential Oil Microemulsion as an Alternative Biocide Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm

Advances in efficient extraction of essential oils from spices and its application in food industry: A critical review

With the increase of people's awareness of food safety, it is crucial to find natural and green antimicrobial agents to replace traditional antimicrobial agents. Essential oils of spices (SEOs) are low toxicity or nontoxic, which exhibited antioxidants and antimicrobial activity according to many in vitro and in situ experiments. Spices are widely available and low cost as a plant raw material for the extraction of SEOs. This review summarized highly efficient extraction techniques for SEOs, such as physical field assisted extraction technology, supercritical fluid extraction, and biological-based techniques. Furthermore, purification of SEOs and components were also recapitulated. Purification techniques of SEOs improve their utilization value due to the increased content of bioactive components. Finally, the review concentrated on the applications of SEOs in food industry, including food preservation, food active packaging by means of films or coatings, antioxidant properties. In addition, addressing the problem of unstability of SEOs and its role to inhibit the pathogenic bacteria, the encapsulation of SEOs for use in the food industrial sectors reduces the safety risk to human health.

Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Effects of Different Samples of Five Commercially Available Essential Oils

Essential oils (EOs) have gained economic importance due to their biological activities, and increasing amounts are demanded everywhere. However, substantial differences between the same essential oil samples from different suppliers are reported-concerning their chemical composition and bioactivities-due to numerous companies involved in EOs production and the continuous development of online sales. The present study investigates the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of two to four samples of five commercially available essential oils (Oregano, Eucalyptus, Rosemary, Clove, and Peppermint oils) produced by autochthonous companies. The manufacturers provided all EOs' chemical compositions determined through GC-MS. The EOs' bioactivities were investigated in vitro against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). The antibacterial and antibiofilm effects (ABE% and, respectively, ABfE%) were evaluated spectrophotometrically at 562 and 570 nm using microplate cultivation techniques. The essential oils' calculated parameters were compared with those of three standard broad-spectrum antibiotics: Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid, Gentamycin, and Streptomycin. The results showed that at the first dilution (D1 = 25 mg/mL), all EOs exhibited antibacterial and antibiofilm activity against all Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria tested, and MIC value > 25 mg/mL. Generally, both effects progressively decreased from D1 to D3. Only EOs with a considerable content of highly active metabolites revealed insignificant differences. E. coli showed the lowest susceptibility to all commercially available essential oils-15 EO samples had undetected antibacterial and antibiofilm effects at D2 and D3. Peppermint and Clove oils recorded the most significant differences regarding chemical composition and antibacterial/antibiofilm activities. All registered differences could be due to different places for harvesting the raw plant material, various technological processes through which these essential oils were obtained, the preservation conditions, and complex interactions between constituents.

The impact of bacterial diversity on resistance to biocides in oilfields

Extreme conditions and the availability of determinate substrates in oil fields promote the growth of a specific microbiome. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria (APB) are usually found in these places and can harm important processes due to increases in corrosion rates, biofouling and reservoir biosouring. Biocides such as glutaraldehyde, dibromo-nitrilopropionamide (DBNPA), tetrakis (hydroxymethyl) phosphonium sulfate (THPS) and alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (ADBAC) are commonly used in oil fields to mitigate uncontrolled microbial growth. The aim of this work was to evaluate the differences among microbiome compositions and their resistance to standard biocides in four different Brazilian produced water samples, two from a Southeast Brazil offshore oil field and two from different Northeast Brazil onshore oil fields. Microbiome evaluations were carried out through 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. To evaluate the biocidal resistance, the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of the standard biocides were analyzed using enriched consortia of SRB and APB from the produced water samples. The data showed important differences in terms of taxonomy but similar functional characterization, indicating the high diversity of the microbiomes. The APB and SRB consortia demonstrated varying resistance levels against the biocides. These results will help to customize biocidal treatments in oil fields.

(+)-Terpinen-4-ol Inhibits Bacillus cereus Biofilm Formation by Upregulating the Interspecies Quorum Sensing Signals Diketopiperazines and Diffusing Signaling Factors

Bacillus cereus is a Gram-positive endospore-forming foodborne pathogen that causes lethal food poisoning and significant economic losses, usually through biofilm- and endospore-induced recurrent cross- and postprocessing contamination. Due to the lack of critical inhibitory targets and control strategies, B. cereus biofilm contamination is a problem that urgently needs a solution. In this study, the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of several natural potential bacterial quorum sensing (QS) interferers, a group of spice-originated monoterpenoids, were screened, and terpinen-4-ol effectively inhibited B. cereus growth and biofilm and spore germination with minimum growth inhibition and 50% biofilm inhibitory concentrations of 8 and 2 μmol/mL, respectively. FESEM/CLSM and phenotypic research illustrated that in addition to a decrease in the number of attached B. cereus cells, (+)-terpinen-4-ol also obviously reduced extracellular matrix synthesis, especially exopolysaccharides, and inhibited the swarming motility and protease activity of B. cereus. (+)-Terpinen-4-ol did not exert a significant effect on AI-2 signals in B. cereus. Accordingly, the B. cereus-produced interspecies QS signals diffusing signal factors (DSFs, C8-C15) and diketopiperazines (DKPs) were detected and identified here, which suppressed B. cereus biofilm formation in a concentration-dependent manner. (+)-Terpinen-4-ol significantly increased the levels of specific DSF and DKP signals in B. cereus and down-regulated the gene expression of some rpfB homologues in transcription level. Moreover, both DKPs and DSFs inhibited swarming motility and protease activity in B. cereus, while just the DSF signals 2-dodecenoic acid and 11-methyl-2-dodecenoic acid inhibited exopolysaccharide synthesis like (+)-terpinen-4-ol. In summary, B. cereus strains were found to produce nine DSF- and six DKP-type QS signaling molecules, which repressed B. cereus biofilm formation. (+)-Terpinen-4-ol was confirmed to be a promising antibacterial and antibiofilm agent against B. cereus upregulating DSFs and DKPs levels, and it could target the critical genes rpfB for DSFs turnover.

Emulsions containing essential oils, their components or volatile semiochemicals as promising tools for insect pest and pathogen management

Most of the traditional strategies used for facing the management of insect pest and diseases have started to fail due to different toxicological issues such as the resistance of target organism and the impact on environment and human health. This has made mandatory to seek new effective strategies, which minimize the risks and hazards without compromising the effectiveness of the products. The use of essential oils, their components and semiochemicals (pheromones and allelochemicals) has become a promising safe and eco-sustainable alternative for controlling insect pest and pathogens. However, the practical applications of this type of molecules remain rather limited because their high volatility, poor solubility in water and low chemical stability. Therefore, it is required to design strategies enabling their use without any alteration of their biological and chemical properties. Oil-in-water nano/microemulsions are currently considered as promising tools for taking advantage of the bioactivity of essential oils and their components against insects and other pathogens. Furthermore, these colloidal systems also allows the encapsulation and controlled release of semiochemicals, which enables their use in traps for monitoring, trapping or mating disruption of insects, and in push-pull strategies for their behavioral manipulation. This has been possible because the use of nano/microemulsions allows combining the protection provided by the hydrophobic environment created within the droplets with the enhanced dispersion of the molecules in an aqueous environment, which favors the handling of the bioactive molecules, and limits their degradation, without any detrimental effect over their biological activity. This review analyzes some of the most recent advances on the use of emulsion-like dispersions as a tool for controlling insect pest and pathogens. It is worth noting that even though the current physico-chemical knowledge about these systems is relatively poor, a deeper study of the physico-chemical aspects of nanoemulsions/microemulsions containing essential oils, their components or semiochemicals, may help for developing most effective formulations, enabling the generalization of their use.