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Fuller G, Wirdateti, Nekaris KAI. Evaluating the Use of Chemical Weapons for Capturing Prey by a Venomous Mammal, the Greater Slow Loris ( Nycticebus coucang). Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1438. [PMID: 38791656 PMCID: PMC11117385 DOI: 10.3390/ani14101438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Few mammals are venomous, including one group of primates-slow (Nycticebus spp.) and pygmy (Xanthonycticebus spp.) lorises. Hypotheses for the evolutionary function of venom in these primates include defense from predators or ectoparasites, communication or competition with conspecifics, and the capture of prey. We tested the prey capture hypothesis in 75 trials with 22 wild-caught greater slow lorises (N. coucang) housed in a rescue center in Java, Indonesia. We experimentally offered the slow lorises arthropod prey items varying in size, escape potential, and toxicity and recorded venom-related and predatory behaviors using live and video observations. The slow lorises visually targeted arthropod prey, approached it quickly and efficiently, and captured it with a manual grasping motion. They rarely performed venom-related behaviors and seemed to do so in a defensive context. The slow lorises exhibited little variation in pre-capture behavior as a function of prey size or escape potential. In response to noxious prey, the slow lorises performed tongue-flicking and other investigative behaviors that indicate they are using chemosensory input to assess prey characteristics. These data suggest it is unlikely that slow lorises use chemical weapons to subdue arthropod prey and may support, instead, a defensive function for slow loris venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Fuller
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, School of Social Sciences and Law, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK;
- Detroit Zoological Society, Royal Oak, MI 48067, USA
| | - Wirdateti
- Division Zoology, Research Center for Biosystematics and Evolution, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional (BRIN), Kawasan Sains dan Teknologi (KST), Soekarno, Cibinong 16911, Indonesia;
| | - K. A. I. Nekaris
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, School of Social Sciences and Law, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK;
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2
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Lazzari CR, Ortega-Insaurralde I, Esnault J, Costa E, Crespo JE, Barrozo RB. Mosquitoes do not Like Bitter. J Chem Ecol 2024; 50:143-151. [PMID: 38366062 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-024-01476-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
Chemical repellents play a crucial role in personal protection, serving as essential elements in reducing the transmission of vector-borne diseases. A biorational perspective that extends beyond the olfactory system as the classical target may be a promising direction to move. The taste system provides reliable information regarding food quality, helping animals to discriminate between nutritious and potentially harmful food sources, often associated with a bitter taste. Understanding how bitter compounds affect feeding in blood-sucking insects could unveil novel molecules with the potential to reduce biting and feeding. Here, we investigated the impact of two naturally occurring bitter compounds, caffeine and quinine, on the feeding decisions in female Aedes aegypti mosquitoes at two distinctive phases: (1) when the mosquito explores the biting substrate using external taste sensors and (2) when the mosquito takes a sip of food and tastes it using internal taste receptors. We assessed the aversiveness of bitter compounds through both an artificial feeding condition (artificial feeder test) and a real host (arm-in-cage test). Our findings revealed different sensitivities in the external and internal sensory pathways responsible for detecting bitter taste in Ae. aegypti. Internal detectors exhibited responsiveness to lower doses compared to the external sensors. Quinine exerted a more pronounced negative impact on biting and feeding activity than caffeine. The implications of our findings are discussed in the context of mosquito food recognition and the potential practical implications for personal protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio R Lazzari
- Institut de Recherche Sur La Biologie de L'Insecte, UMR CNRS 7261 - Université de Tours, Tours, France.
| | - Isabel Ortega-Insaurralde
- Laboratorio de Neuroetología de Insectos, ETI2, Instituto Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental y Aplicada, IBBEA, CONICET-UBA, Departamento Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jérémy Esnault
- Institut de Recherche Sur La Biologie de L'Insecte, UMR CNRS 7261 - Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Eloïse Costa
- Institut de Recherche Sur La Biologie de L'Insecte, UMR CNRS 7261 - Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - José E Crespo
- Laboratorio de Entomología Experimental-Grupo de Investigación en Ecofisiología de Parasitoides y Otros Insectos (GIEP), Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Romina B Barrozo
- Laboratorio de Neuroetología de Insectos, ETI2, Instituto Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental y Aplicada, IBBEA, CONICET-UBA, Departamento Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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3
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Yu YL, Ge J, Dong WQ, Chomicki G, Yang SL, Geng Y, Chen G. Aristolochia mimics stink bugs to repel vertebrate herbivores via TRPA1 activation. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2024; 242:278-288. [PMID: 37984873 DOI: 10.1111/nph.19407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Mimicry is the phenomenon in which one species (the mimic) closely resembles another (the model), enhancing its own fitness by deceiving a third party into interacting with it as if it were the model. In plants, mimicry is used primarily to gain fitness by withholding rewards from mutualists or deterring herbivores cost-effectively. While extensive work has been documented on putative defence mimicry, limited investigation has been conducted in the field of chemical mimicry. In this study, we used field experiments, chemical analyses, behavioural assays, and electrophysiology, to test the hypothesis that the birthwort Aristolochia delavayi employs chemical mimicry by releasing leaf scent that closely resembles stink bug defensive compounds and repels vertebrate herbivores. We show that A. delavayi leaf scent is chemically and functionally similar to the generalized defensive volatiles of stink bugs and that the scent effectively deters vertebrate herbivores, likely through the activation of TRPA1 channels via (E)-2-alkenal compounds. This study provides an unequivocal example of chemical mimicry in plants, revealing intricate dynamics between plants and vertebrate herbivores. Our study underscores the potency of chemical volatiles in countering vertebrate herbivory, urging further research to uncover their potentially underestimated importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Long Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Biodiversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Transboundary Ecosecurity of Southwest China and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Plant Reproductive Adaptation and Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Biodiversity, School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650504, China
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Integrative Conservation of Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
| | - Jia Ge
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Biodiversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Integrative Conservation of Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
| | - Wen-Qi Dong
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150040, China
| | - Guillaume Chomicki
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Shi-Long Yang
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150040, China
| | - Yupeng Geng
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Transboundary Ecosecurity of Southwest China and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Plant Reproductive Adaptation and Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Biodiversity, School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650504, China
| | - Gao Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Biodiversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Integrative Conservation of Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
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Zamora-Camacho FJ. Keep the ball rolling: sexual differences in conglobation behavior of a terrestrial isopod under different degrees of perceived predation pressure. PeerJ 2023; 11:e16696. [PMID: 38144184 PMCID: PMC10740659 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Antipredator behaviors are theoretically subjected to a balance by which their display should be minimized when their benefits do not outweigh their costs. Such costs may be not only energetic, but also entail a reduction in the time available for other fitness-enhancing behaviors. However, these behaviors are only beneficial under predation risk. Therefore, antipredator behaviors are predicted to be maximized under strong predation risk. Moreover, predation pressure can differ among individuals according to traits such as sex or body size, if these traits increase vulnerability. Antipredator behaviors are expected to be maximized in individuals whose traits make them more conspicuous to predators. However, how sex, body size and antipredator behaviors interact is not always understood. Methods In this work, I tested the interaction between sex, body size and antipredator behavior in the common pill woodlouse (Armadillidium vulgare), which conglobate (i.e., they roll up their bodies almost conforming a sphere that conceals their appendages) in response to predator attacks. Specifically, I tested whether latency to unroll after a standardized mechanical induction was greater in animals exposed to predator chemical cues (toad feces) than in conspecifics exposed to cues of non-predatory animals (rabbits) or no chemical cues whatsoever (distilled water), incorporating sex and body mass in the analyses. Results In agreement with my prediction, latency to unroll was greater in individuals exposed to predator chemical cues. In other words, these animals engage in conglobation for longer under perceived predator vicinity. However, this result was only true for males. This sexual dimorphism in antipredator behavior could result from males being under greater predation risk than females, thus having evolved more refined antipredator strategies. Indeed, males of this species are known to actively search for females, which makes them more prone to superficial ground mobility, and likely to being detected by predators. Body size was unrelated to latency to unroll. As a whole, these results support the hypothesis that antipredator behavior is tuned to predator cues in a way consistent with a balance between costs and benefits, which might differ between the sexes.
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Lemos F, Bajda S, Duarte MVA, Alba JM, Van Leeuwen T, Pallini A, Sabelis MW, Janssen A. Imperfect diet choice reduces the performance of a predatory mite. Oecologia 2023; 201:929-939. [PMID: 36947271 PMCID: PMC10113300 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-023-05359-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Two mutually unexclusive hypotheses prevail in the theory of nutritional ecology: the balanced diet hypothesis states that consumers feed on different food items because they have complementary nutrient and energy compositions. The toxin-dilution hypothesis poses that consumers feed on different food items to dilute the toxins present in each. Both predict that consumers should not feed on low-quality food when ample high-quality food forming a complete diet is present. We investigated the diet choice of Phytoseiulus persimilis, a predatory mite of web-producing spider mites. It can develop and reproduce on single prey species, for example the spider mite Tetranychus urticae. A closely related prey, T. evansi, is of notorious bad quality for P. persimilis and other predator species. We show that juvenile predators feeding on this prey have low survival and do not develop into adults. Adults stop reproducing and have increased mortality when feeding on it. Feeding on a mixed diet of the two prey decreases predator performance, but short-term effects of feeding on the low-quality prey can be partially reversed by subsequently feeding on the high-quality prey. Yet, predators consume low-quality prey in the presence of high-quality prey, which is in disagreement with both hypotheses. We suggest that it is perhaps not the instantaneous reproduction on single prey or mixtures of prey that matters for the fitness of predators, but that it is the overall reproduction by a female and her offspring on an ephemeral prey patch, which may be increased by including inferior prey in their diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Lemos
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Ecology, IBED, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Laboratory of Acarology, Department of Entomology, Federal University of Viçosa, 36, Viçosa, MG, 570-000, Brazil
- Ecofit- Bioinsumos, Araxá, MG, Brazil
| | - Sabina Bajda
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marcus V A Duarte
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Ecology, IBED, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Laboratory of Acarology, Department of Entomology, Federal University of Viçosa, 36, Viçosa, MG, 570-000, Brazil
- R&D Department, Biobest Group NV, Westerlo, Belgium
| | - Juan M Alba
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Ecology, IBED, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Van Leeuwen
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Angelo Pallini
- Laboratory of Acarology, Department of Entomology, Federal University of Viçosa, 36, Viçosa, MG, 570-000, Brazil
| | - Maurice W Sabelis
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Ecology, IBED, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Arne Janssen
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Ecology, IBED, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Laboratory of Acarology, Department of Entomology, Federal University of Viçosa, 36, Viçosa, MG, 570-000, Brazil.
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6
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Kikuchi D, Simon MW. Social learning of innovations in dynamic predator-prey systems. Am Nat 2023; 201:895-907. [DOI: 10.1086/724491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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7
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Aiyer A, Shine R, Somaweera R, Bell T, Ward-Fear G. Shifts in the foraging tactics of crocodiles following invasion by toxic prey. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1267. [PMID: 35075144 PMCID: PMC8786828 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03629-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological invasions can modify the behaviour of vulnerable native species in subtle ways. For example, native predators may learn or evolve to reduce foraging in conditions (habitats, times of day) that expose them to a toxic invasive species. In tropical Australia, freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni) are often fatally poisoned when they ingest invasive cane toads (Rhinella marina). The risk may be greatest if toads are seized on land, where a predator cannot wash away the toxins before they are absorbed into its bloodstream. Hence, toad invasion might induce crocodiles to forage in aquatic habitats only, foregoing terrestrial hunting. To test this idea, we conducted standardised trials of bait presentation to free-ranging crocodiles in sites with and without invasive toads. As anticipated, crocodiles rapidly learned to avoid consuming toads, and shifted to almost exclusively aquatic foraging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhilasha Aiyer
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Richard Shine
- School of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Ruchira Somaweera
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Tina Bell
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Georgia Ward-Fear
- School of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia.
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8
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Hemptinne J, Lecompte E, Sentis A, Dixon AFG, Magro A. Prey life-history influences the evolution of egg mass and indirectly reproductive investment in a group of free-living insect predators. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8438. [PMID: 35127006 PMCID: PMC8796932 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The balance between risk and benefit of exploiting resources drives life-history evolution in organisms. Predators are naturally recognized as major drivers of the life-history evolution of their prey. Although prey may also influence the life-history evolution of their predators in the context of an evolutionary arms race, there is far more evidence of the role of predators than of prey.The goal of this study was to investigate the role of prey in life-history evolution of predators using ladybird beetle predators of aphids and coccids. These particular ladybirds and their prey were chosen because literature shows that the pace of life of aphids is faster than that of coccids and this difference is reflected in the life histories of the ladybirds that specialize on feeding on aphids or coccids.Thirty-four species of ladybird predators of aphids and eight of coccids belonging to five different tribes were collected and reared in the laboratory. The females were weighed as well as their eggs, and their reproductive investment estimated as the number of ovarioles. Phylogenetic relatedness was controlled for in the statistical analyses.Controlling for female mass revealed that ladybird predators of aphids lay bigger eggs than ladybird predators of coccids. This difference is not influenced by phylogenetic relatedness but only by the type of prey eaten. We suggest that ladybird predators of coccids lay smaller eggs because neonate larvae do not have to search, catch, and subdue prey. Both types of ladybirds have a similar reproductive investment relative to their body mass when phylogeny is controlled for.Recognizing the influence of prey on the life-history evolution of predators is important for understanding food web dynamics. From an applied perspective, this fine evolutionary tuning of prey-predator relationships should be used to guide and increase the efficiency of biological control programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean‐Louis Hemptinne
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (UMR EDB 5174)Université de ToulouseCNRSIRDUPSToulouseFrance
| | - Emilie Lecompte
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (UMR EDB 5174)Université de ToulouseCNRSIRDUPSToulouseFrance
| | - Arnaud Sentis
- INRAEAix‐Marseille UniversityUMR RECOVERAix‐en‐ProvenceFrance
| | - Anthony F. G. Dixon
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwichUK
- Global Change Research Institute CASBrnoCzech Republic
| | - Alexandra Magro
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (UMR EDB 5174)Université de ToulouseCNRSIRDUPSToulouseFrance
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9
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Winters AE, Chan W, White AM, van den Berg CP, Garson MJ, Cheney KL. Weapons or deterrents? Nudibranch molluscs use distinct ecological modes of chemical defence against predators. J Anim Ecol 2021; 91:831-844. [PMID: 34839542 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Defensive chemicals are used by plants and animals to reduce the risk of predation through different mechanisms, including toxins that cause injury and harm (weapons) and unpalatable or odiferous compounds that prevent attacks (deterrents). However, whether effective defences are both toxins and deterrents, or work in just one modality is often unclear. In this study, our primary aim was to determine whether defensive compounds stored by nudibranch molluscs acted as weapons (in terms of being toxic), deterrents (in terms of being distasteful) or both. Our secondary aim was to investigate the response of different taxa to these defensive compounds. To do this, we identified secondary metabolites in 30 species of nudibranch molluscs and investigated their deterrent properties using antifeedant assays with three taxa: rock pool shrimp, Palaemon serenus, and two fish species: triggerfish Rhinecanthus aculeatus and toadfish Tetractenos hamiltoni. We compared these results to toxicity assays using brine shrimp Artemia sp. and previously published toxicity data with a damselfish Chromis viridis. Overall, we found no clear relationship between palatability and toxicity, but instead classified defensive compounds into the following categories: Class I & II-highly unpalatable and highly toxic; Class I-weakly unpalatable and highly toxic; Class II-highly unpalatable but weakly toxic; WR (weak response)-weakly unpalatable and weakly toxic. We also found eight extracts from six species that did not display activity in any assays indicating they may have very limited chemical defensive mechanisms (NR, no response). We found that the different classes of secondary metabolites were similarly unpalatable to fish and shrimp, except extracts from Phyllidiidae nudibranchs (isonitriles) that were highly unpalatable to shrimp but weakly unpalatable to fish. Our results pave the way towards better understanding how animal chemical defences work against a variety of predators. We highlight the need to disentangle weapons and deterrents in future work on anti-predator defences to better understand the foraging decisions faced by predators, the resultant selection pressures imposed on prey and the evolution of different anti-predator strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne E Winters
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Weili Chan
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Andrew M White
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Cedric P van den Berg
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Mary J Garson
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Karen L Cheney
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
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10
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Abstract
Abstract
It has long been understood that species that are profitable for predators to attack can gain protection if they resemble unprofitable species (Batesian mimicry), and that unprofitable species may face selection to evolve a common warning signal (Müllerian mimicry). Here we suggest that there may be widespread selection for another form of protective mimicry, so far unrecognized, that can arise even among profitable prey. Specifically, when predators adopt species-specific attack strategies, then co-occurring prey species that are caught in different ways may be selected to resemble one another. This is because the mimicry may increase the chance that the predator deploys an inappropriate attack strategy, thereby increasing the probability the prey will escape. We refer to this phenomenon as “mutualistic deceptive mimicry”, since the mimicry misleads the predator yet potentially benefits all co-mimics. We show that this hypothesis is quantitatively plausible. We then provide an empirical ‘proof of concept’ demonstrating that predators can learn to attack distinct prey types in specific ways and that this behaviour readily generates selection for mimicry. Finally, we discuss how this unrecognized form of mimicry fits into an earlier classification of protective mimicry and suggest a number of potential examples in the natural world.
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11
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Chan W, Shaughnessy AEP, van den Berg CP, Garson MJ, Cheney KL. The Validity of Brine Shrimp (Artemia Sp.) Toxicity Assays to Assess the Ecological Function of Marine Natural Products. J Chem Ecol 2021; 47:834-846. [PMID: 33713252 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-021-01264-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Many organisms employ toxic compounds for protection against predators. To understand the effectiveness of such compounds, chemoecological studies often use brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) as a model organism instead of more ecologically relevant species. This is mostly because brine shrimp assays are simple and quick, but also due to the ethical implications associated with inducing harm to vertebrate predators in toxicity assays. In this study, we examined whether brine shrimp assays produce similar results to ichthyological toxicity assays with the aim of validating the use of brine shrimp as a preliminary screening tool. We extracted compounds from eight nudibranch molluscs including six species that we consider to signal their chemical defenses via warning coloration to visually hunting vertebrate predators. We tested the relative toxicity of these compounds against brine shrimp and a vertebrate potential predator, the blue-green damselfish (Chromis viridis). We found that extracts toxic to brine shrimp were also toxic to damselfish; however, extracts non-toxic to brine shrimp may still be toxic to damselfish. We also produced and tested mantle vs whole-body extracts for some nudibranch species, which exhibited similar toxicities in both assays except for the whole-body extract of Goniobranchus splendidus which was harmless to shrimp but toxic to fish, while the mantle extract was toxic to both. Overall, we argue that the brine shrimp assay can reasonably indicate the potential toxicity of a compound to fish, but additional experiments with more ecologically relevant predators are required if a no dose-response is observed against brine shrimp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weili Chan
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.
| | | | - Cedric P van den Berg
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Mary J Garson
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Karen L Cheney
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
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12
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Hemipteran defensive odors trigger predictable color biases in jumping spider predators. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21898. [PMID: 33318578 PMCID: PMC7736339 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78952-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multimodal warning displays often pair one signal modality (odor) with a second modality (color) to avoid predation. Experiments with bird predators suggest these signal components interact synergistically, with aversive odors triggering otherwise hidden aversions to particular prey colors. In a recent study, this phenomenon was found in a jumping spider (Habronattus trimaculatus), with the defensive odor from a coreid bug (Acanthocephala femorata) triggering an aversion to red. Here, we explore how generalizable this phenomenon is by giving H. trimaculatus the choice between red or black prey in the presence or absence of defensive odors secreted from (1) eastern leaf-footed bugs (Leptoglossus phyllopus, Hemiptera), (2) grass stinkbugs (Mormidea pama, Hemiptera), (3) Asian ladybird beetles (Harmonia axyridis, Coleoptera), and (4) eastern lubber grasshoppers (Romalea microptera, Orthoptera). As expected, in the presence of the hemipteran odors, spiders were less likely to attack red prey (compared to no odor). Unexpectedly, the beetle and grasshopper odors did not bias spiders away from red. Our results with the hemipteran odors were unique to red; follow-up experiments indicated that these odors did not affect biases for/against green prey. We discuss our findings in the context of generalized predator foraging behavior and the functions of multimodal warning displays.
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13
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Yamazaki Y, Pagani-Núñez E, Sota T, Barnett CRA. The truth is in the detail: predators attack aposematic prey with less aggression than other prey types. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blaa119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Aposematic organisms are often unprofitable to predators (e.g. because of defensive chemicals) which they advertise with a conspicuous signal (e.g. bright and conspicuous colour signals). Aposematism is thought to reduce predation of prey because the colour signal increases the ability of predators to learn, recognize and remember the prey’s defensive properties. The efficacy of aposematism has been extensively documented in laboratory studies, although its benefits seem to be harder to demonstrate in the field. In this study, we compared the levels of partial and overall predation among four prey types (undefended and cryptic, undefended and warning coloured, defended and cryptic, and aposematic prey). Overall, predation of warning coloured and defended (aposematic) prey was lower than the predation for cryptic and undefended prey; however, it was the same as predation of cryptic and defended prey. Moreover, aposematic prey had higher levels of partial predation (where prey was not wholly consumed by the predator) and lower attack intensities. This suggests that prey were being taste sampled, but also might be better able to survive attacks. Therefore, the benefits of aposematism may lie not only in reducing outright predation, but also in altering a predator’s post-attack behaviour, thus leading to greater escape opportunities and post-attack survival of prey. These results reinforce the importance of examining predation in more detail rather than simply examining attack rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Yamazaki
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Emilio Pagani-Núñez
- Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Teiji Sota
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Craig R A Barnett
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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14
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Sykes AV, Almansa E, Ponte G, Cooke GM, Andrews PLR. Can Cephalopods Vomit? Hypothesis Based on a Review of Circumstantial Evidence and Preliminary Experimental Observations. Front Physiol 2020; 11:765. [PMID: 32848811 PMCID: PMC7396502 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In representative species of all vertebrate classes, the oral ejection of upper digestive tract contents by vomiting or regurgitation is used to void food contaminated with toxins or containing indigestible material not voidable in the feces. Vomiting or regurgitation has been reported in a number of invertebrate marine species (Exaiptasia diaphana, Cancer productus, and Pleurobranchaea californica), prompting consideration of whether cephalopods have this capability. This "hypothesis and theory" paper reviews four lines of supporting evidence: (1) the mollusk P. californica sharing some digestive tract morphological and innervation similarities with Octopus vulgaris is able to vomit or regurgitate with the mechanisms well characterized, providing an example of motor program switching; (2) a rationale for vomiting or regurgitation in cephalopods based upon the potential requirement to void indigestible material, which may cause damage and ejection of toxin contaminated food; (3) anecdotal reports (including from the literature) of vomiting- or regurgitation-like behavior in several species of cephalopod (Sepia officinalis, Sepioteuthis sepioidea, O. vulgaris, and Enteroctopus dofleini); and (4) anatomical and physiological studies indicating that ejection of gastric/crop contents via the buccal cavity is a theoretical possibility by retroperistalsis in the upper digestive tract (esophagus, crop, and stomach). We have not identified any publications refuting our hypothesis, so a balanced review is not possible. Overall, the evidence presented is circumstantial, so experiments adapting current methodology (e.g., research community survey, in vitro studies of motility, and analysis of indigestible gut contents and feces) are described to obtain additional evidence to either support or refute our hypothesis. We recognize the possibility that further research may not support the hypothesis; therefore, we consider how cephalopods may protect themselves against ingestion of toxic food by external chemodetection prior to ingestion and digestive gland detoxification post-ingestion. Reviewing the evidence for the hypothesis has identified a number of gaps in knowledge of the anatomy (e.g., the presence of sphincters) and physiology (e.g., the fate of indigestible food residues, pH of digestive secretions, sensory innervation, and digestive gland detoxification mechanisms) of the digestive tract as well as a paucity of recent studies on the role of epithelial chemoreceptors in prey identification and food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- António V Sykes
- CCMAR, Centro de Ciências do Mar do Algarve, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Eduardo Almansa
- Department of Aquaculture, Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Centro Oceanográfico de Canarias, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Giovanna Ponte
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
| | - Gavan M Cooke
- Department of Life Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Paul L R Andrews
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
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15
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Raaymakers C, Stijlemans B, Martin C, Zaman S, Ballet S, Martel A, Pasmans F, Roelants K. A New Family of Diverse Skin Peptides from the Microhylid Frog Genus Phrynomantis. Molecules 2020; 25:E912. [PMID: 32085597 PMCID: PMC7070584 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25040912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
A wide range of frogs produce skin poisons composed of bioactive peptides for defence against pathogens, parasites and predators. While several frog families have been thoroughly screened for skin-secreted peptides, others, like the Microhylidae, have remained mostly unexplored. Previous studies of microhylids found no evidence of peptide secretion, suggesting that this defence adaptation was evolutionarily lost. We conducted transcriptome analyses of the skins of Phrynomantis bifasciatus and Phrynomantis microps, two African microhylid species long suspected to be poisonous. Our analyses reveal 17 evolutionary related transcripts that diversified from to those of cytolytic peptides found in other frog families. The 19 peptides predicted to be processed from these transcripts, named phrynomantins, show a striking structural diversity that is distinct from any previously identified frog skin peptide. Functional analyses of five phrynomantins confirm the loss of a cytolytic function and the absence of insecticidal or proinflammatory activity, suggesting that they represent an evolutionary transition to a new, yet unknown function. Our study shows that peptides have been retained in the defence poison of at least one microhylid lineage and encourages research on similarly understudied taxa to further elucidate the diversity and evolution of skin defence molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constantijn Raaymakers
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium; (C.R.); (S.Z.)
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (A.M.); (F.P.)
| | - Benoit Stijlemans
- Unit of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium;
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Centre for Inflammation Research, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium
| | - Charlotte Martin
- Research Group of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Department of Bio-engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium; (C.M.); (S.B.)
| | - Shabnam Zaman
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium; (C.R.); (S.Z.)
| | - Steven Ballet
- Research Group of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Department of Bio-engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium; (C.M.); (S.B.)
| | - An Martel
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (A.M.); (F.P.)
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (A.M.); (F.P.)
| | - Kim Roelants
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium; (C.R.); (S.Z.)
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16
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Parrott ML, Doody JS, McHenry C, Clulow S. Eat your heart out: choice and handling of novel toxic prey by predatory water rats. AUSTRALIAN MAMMALOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1071/am19016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We investigated predator–prey interactions between cane toads (Rhinella marina) and native water rats (Hydromys chrysogaster), where toads are novel prey. We show that wild water rats preferentially targeted larger toads, and consumed specific non-toxic organs only. Rats either rapidly learned these behaviours, or adapted them from hunting native frogs.
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17
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Indigo N, Smith J, Webb JK, Phillips BL. Bangers and cash: Baiting efficiency in a heterogeneous population. WILDLIFE SOC B 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Indigo
- School of Life Sciences University of Technology Sydney P.O. Box 123 Broadway NSW 2007 Australia
| | - James Smith
- Australian Wildlife Conservancy Mornington Wildlife Sanctuary PMB 925 Derby WA 6728 Australia
| | - Jonathan K. Webb
- School of Life Sciences University of Technology Sydney P.O. Box 123 Broadway NSW 2007 Australia
| | - Ben L. Phillips
- School of BioSciences University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria 3010 Australia
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18
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Abstract
The functional basis of disgust in disease avoidance is widely accepted; however, there is disagreement over what disgust is. This is a significant problem, as basic questions about disgust require knowing if single/multiple forms/processes exist. We address this issue with a new model with one form of disgust generated by multiple processes: (a) pure disgust experienced during gastrointestinal illness; (b) somatosensory disgust elicited by specific cues that activate the pure disgust state; (c) anticipatory disgust elicited by associations between distance cues for somatosensory disgust and requiring threat evaluation; (d) simulated disgusts elicited by imagining somatosensory and anticipatory disgust and frequently involving other emotions. Different contamination processes interlink (a–d). The implications of our model for fundamental questions about disgust (e.g., emotion status; continuation into animals) are examined.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Trevor I. Case
- Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Australia
| | - Megan J. Oaten
- School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Australia
| | | | - Supreet Saluja
- Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Australia
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19
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Mebs D, Wunder C, Toennes SW. Coping with noxious effects of quinine by praying mantids (Mantodea) and spiders (Araneae). Toxicon 2019; 162:57-60. [PMID: 30904569 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Because of its bitter taste, quinine elicits strong antifeedant and toxic effects in animals including arthropods. In the present study, two mantis, Sphodromantis viridis, Hierodula membranacea, and two spider species, Nephila edulis, Selenocosmia javanensis, were offered a quinine solution or prey (crickets) contaminated or injected with quinine, which they ingested and survived without apparent toxic symptoms. Analysis of their faeces and, in the case of spiders, of silk from their web revealed that quinine was excreted over a period of 8-12 (mantids) or 7 days (spiders). Interestingly, the silk glands of the spiders served as an additional excretory organ of quinine. Both, mantids and spiders were shown to tolerate high amounts of quinine in their prey. Obviously, the bitter taste of this compound is not perceived by their gustatory receptors and consequently triggers no aversive reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dietrich Mebs
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Frankfurt, Kennedyallee 104, D-60956, Frankfurt, Germany.
| | - Cora Wunder
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Frankfurt, Kennedyallee 104, D-60956, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Stefan W Toennes
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Frankfurt, Kennedyallee 104, D-60956, Frankfurt, Germany
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20
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Arthurs J, Lin JY, Reilly S. Inhibiting gustatory thalamus or medial amygdala has opposing effects on taste neophobia. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2018; 156:24-32. [PMID: 30336209 PMCID: PMC6309437 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Taste neophobia is a feeding system defense mechanism that limits consumption of an unknown, and therefore potentially dangerous, edible until the post-ingestive consequences are experienced. We found that transient pharmacological inhibition (induced with the GABA agonists baclofen and muscimol) of the gustatory thalamus (GT; Experiment 1), but not medial amygdala (MeA; Experiment 2), during exposure to a novel saccharin solution attenuated taste neophobia. In Experiment 3 we found that inhibition of MeA neurons (induced with the chemogenetic receptor hM4DGi) enhanced the expression of taste neophobia whereas excitation of MeA neurons (with hM3DGq) had no influence of taste neophobia. Overall, these results refine the temporal involvement of the GT in the occurrence of taste neophobia and support the hypothesis that neuronal excitation in the GT is necessary for taste neophobia. Conversely, we show that chemogenetically, but not pharmacologically, inhibiting MeA neurons is sufficient to exaggerate the expression of taste neophobia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe Arthurs
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Department of Psychology, United States.
| | - Jian-You Lin
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Department of Psychology, United States
| | - Steve Reilly
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Department of Psychology, United States.
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21
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Morawo T, Fadamiro H. Chemical-mediated counter defense: attraction of two parasitoid species to the defensive secretion of host larvae. CHEMOECOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00049-018-0268-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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22
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Marples NM, Speed MP, Thomas RJ. An individual-based profitability spectrum for understanding interactions between predators and their prey. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicola M Marples
- Department of Zoology, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Eire
| | - Michael P Speed
- Institute of Integrative Biology, Biosciences Building, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, UK
| | - Robert J Thomas
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, UK
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23
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Chen ML, Wang T, Huang YH, Qiu BY, Li HS, Pang H. Physiological and Evolutionary Changes in a Biological Control Agent During Prey Shifts Over Several Generations. Front Physiol 2018; 9:971. [PMID: 30072921 PMCID: PMC6060241 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological control agents usually suffer from a shortage of target prey or hosts in their post-release stage. Some predatory agents turn to attacking other prey organisms, which may induce physiological and evolutionary changes. In this study, we investigated life history traits, gene expression and genotype frequency in the predatory ladybird beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri during experimental prey shifts. C. montrouzieri were either continuously fed on aphids Megoura japonica as an alternative prey for four generations or were shifted back to the initial prey mealybugs Planococcus citri in each generation. In general, the utilization of aphids resulted in reduced performance and severe physiological adjustments, indicated by significant changes in development and fecundity traits and a large number of differentially expressed genes between the two offering setup prey treatments. Within the aphid-fed lines, performance regarding the developmental time, the adult weight and the survival rate recovered to some level in subsequent generations, possibly as a result of adaptive evolution. In particular, we found that a shift back to mealybugs caused a gradual increase in fecundity. Accordingly, a genotype of the fecundity-related gene vitellogenin, of which there were several minor alleles in the initial population, became the main genotype within four generations. The present study explored the short-term experimental evolution of a so-call specialist predator under prey shift conditions. This potential rapid adaptation of biological control agents to novel prey will increase environmental risks associated with non-target effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Lan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yu-Hao Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bo-Yuan Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hao-Sen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hong Pang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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24
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Winters AE, Wilson NG, van den Berg CP, How MJ, Endler JA, Marshall NJ, White AM, Garson MJ, Cheney KL. Toxicity and taste: unequal chemical defences in a mimicry ring. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:20180457. [PMID: 29875302 PMCID: PMC6015865 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.0457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mimicry of warning signals is common, and can be mutualistic when mimetic species harbour equal levels of defence (Müllerian), or parasitic when mimics are undefended but still gain protection from their resemblance to the model (Batesian). However, whether chemically defended mimics should be similar in terms of toxicity (i.e. causing damage to the consumer) and/or unpalatability (i.e. distasteful to consumer) is unclear and in many studies remains undifferentiated. In this study, we investigated the evolution of visual signals and chemical defences in a putative mimicry ring of nudibranch molluscs. First, we demonstrated that the appearance of a group of red spotted nudibranchs molluscs was similar from the perspective of potential fish predators using visual modelling and pattern analysis. Second, using phylogenetic reconstruction, we demonstrated that this colour pattern has evolved multiple times in distantly related individuals. Third, we showed that these nudibranchs contained different chemical profiles used for defensive purposes. Finally, we demonstrated that although levels of distastefulness towards Palaemon shrimp remained relatively constant between species, toxicity levels towards brine shrimp varied significantly. We highlight the need to disentangle toxicity and taste when considering chemical defences in aposematic and mimetic species, and discuss the implications for aposematic and mimicry signal evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne E Winters
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Nerida G Wilson
- Molecular Systematics Unit, Western Australian Museum, 49 Kew St, Welshpool, Western Australia 6106, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Cedric P van den Berg
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Martin J How
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - John A Endler
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Science, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3216, Australia
| | - N Justin Marshall
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Andrew M White
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Mary J Garson
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Karen L Cheney
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
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25
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Indigo N, Smith J, Webb JK, Phillips B. Not such silly sausages: Evidence suggests northern quolls exhibit aversion to toads after training with toad sausages. AUSTRAL ECOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.12595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Indigo
- School of Life Sciences University of Technology Sydney PO Box 123 Broadway Sydney New South Wales 2007 Australia
- Australian Wildlife Conservancy Mornington Wildlife Sanctuary Derby Western Australia Australia
| | - James Smith
- Australian Wildlife Conservancy Mornington Wildlife Sanctuary Derby Western Australia Australia
| | - Jonathan K. Webb
- School of Life Sciences University of Technology Sydney PO Box 123 Broadway Sydney New South Wales 2007 Australia
| | - Ben Phillips
- School of Biosciences University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
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26
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27
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Roncalli V, Lenz PH, Cieslak MC, Hartline DK. Complementary mechanisms for neurotoxin resistance in a copepod. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14201. [PMID: 29079725 PMCID: PMC5660226 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14545-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxin resistance is a recurring evolutionary response by predators feeding on toxic prey. These adaptations impact physiological interaction and community ecology. Mechanisms for resistance vary depending on the predator and the nature of the toxin. Potent neurotoxins like tetrodotoxin (TTX) and saxitoxin (STX) that are highly toxic to humans and other vertebrates, target conserved voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV) of nerve and muscle, causing paralysis. The copepod Calanus finmarchicus consumes the STX-producing dinoflagellate, Alexandrium fundyense with no effect on survival. Using transcriptomic approaches to search for the mechanism that confers resistance in C. finmarchicus, we identified splice variants of NaVs that were predicted to be toxin resistant. These were co-expressed with putatively non-resistant form in all developmental stages. However its expression was unresponsive to toxin challenge nor was there any up-regulation of genes involved in multi-xenobiotic resistance (MXR) or detoxification (phases I or II). Instead, adults consistently regulated genes encoding digestive enzymes, possibly to complement channel resistance by limiting toxin assimilation via the digestive process. The nauplii, which were more susceptible to STX, did not regulate these enzymes. This study demonstrates how deep-sequencing technology can elucidate multiple mechanisms of toxin resistance concurrently, revealing the linkages between molecular/cellular adaptations and the ecology of an organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vittoria Roncalli
- Békésy Laboratory of Neurobiology, Pacific Biosciences Research Center, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, 1993 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
| | - Petra H Lenz
- Békésy Laboratory of Neurobiology, Pacific Biosciences Research Center, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, 1993 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | - Matthew C Cieslak
- Békésy Laboratory of Neurobiology, Pacific Biosciences Research Center, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, 1993 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | - Daniel K Hartline
- Békésy Laboratory of Neurobiology, Pacific Biosciences Research Center, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, 1993 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
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28
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Loci Contributing to Boric Acid Toxicity in Two Reference Populations of Drosophila melanogaster. G3-GENES GENOMES GENETICS 2017; 7:1631-1641. [PMID: 28592646 PMCID: PMC5473745 DOI: 10.1534/g3.117.041418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Populations maintain considerable segregating variation in the response to toxic, xenobiotic compounds. To identify variants associated with resistance to boric acid, a commonly-used household insecticide with a poorly understood mechanism of action, we assayed thousands of individuals from hundreds of strains. Using the Drosophila Synthetic Population Resource (DSPR), a multi-parental population (MPP) of inbred genotypes, we mapped six QTL to short genomic regions containing few protein-coding genes (3–188), allowing us to identify plausible candidate genes underlying resistance to boric acid toxicity. One interval contains multiple genes from the cytochrome P450 family, and we show that ubiquitous RNAi of one of these genes, Cyp9b2, markedly reduces resistance to the toxin. Resistance to boric acid is positively correlated with caffeine resistance. The two phenotypes additionally share a pair of QTL, potentially suggesting a degree of pleiotropy in the genetic control of resistance to these two distinct xenobiotics. Finally, we screened the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP) in an attempt to identify sequence variants within mapped QTL that are associated with boric acid resistance. The approach was largely unsuccessful, with only one QTL showing any associations at QTL-specific 20% False Discovery Rate (FDR) thresholds. Nonetheless, these associations point to a potential candidate gene that can be targeted in future validation efforts. Although the mapping data resulting from the two reference populations do not clearly overlap, our work provides a starting point for further genetic dissection of the processes underlying boric acid toxicity in insects.
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29
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Rafter JL, Vendettuoli JF, Gonda-King L, Niesen D, Seeram NP, Rigsby CM, Preisser EL. Pretty Picky for a Generalist: Impacts of Toxicity and Nutritional Quality on Mantid Prey Processing. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2017; 46:626-632. [PMID: 28334410 PMCID: PMC7263701 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvx038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Prey have evolved a number of defenses against predation, and predators have developed means of countering these protective measures. Although caterpillars of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus L., are defended by cardenolides sequestered from their host plants, the Chinese mantid Tenodera sinensis Saussure guts the caterpillar before consuming the rest of the body. We hypothesized that this gutting behavior might be driven by the heterogeneous quality of prey tissue with respect to toxicity and/or nutrients. We conducted behavioral trials in which mantids were offered cardenolide-containing and cardenolide-free D. plexippus caterpillars and butterflies. In addition, we fed mantids starved and unstarved D. plexippus caterpillars from each cardenolide treatment and nontoxic Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner caterpillars. These trials were coupled with elemental analysis of the gut and body tissues of both D. plexippus caterpillars and corn borers. Cardenolides did not affect mantid behavior: mantids gutted both cardenolide-containing and cardenolide-free caterpillars. In contrast, mantids consumed both O. nubilalis and starved D. plexippus caterpillars entirely. Danaus plexippus body tissue has a lower C:N ratio than their gut contents, while O. nubilalis have similar ratios; gutting may reflect the mantid's ability to regulate nutrient uptake. Our results suggest that post-capture prey processing by mantids is likely driven by a sophisticated assessment of resource quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie L Rafter
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881 ( ; ; ; ; )
- Department of Biology, Muskingum University, Concord, OH 43762
| | - Justin F Vendettuoli
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881 (; ; ; ; )
| | - Liahna Gonda-King
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881 (; ; ; ; )
| | - Daniel Niesen
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881 (; )
| | - Navindra P Seeram
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881 (; )
| | - Chad M Rigsby
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881 (; ; ; ; )
| | - Evan L Preisser
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881 (; ; ; ; )
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Impact of Consuming 'Toxic' Monarch Caterpillars on Adult Chinese Mantid Mass Gain and Fecundity. INSECTS 2017; 8:insects8010023. [PMID: 28218646 PMCID: PMC5371951 DOI: 10.3390/insects8010023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Revised: 02/11/2017] [Accepted: 02/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Predators that feed on chemically-defended prey often experience non-lethal effects that result in learned avoidance of the prey species. Some predators are able to consume toxic prey without ill-effect. The Chinese mantid is able to consume cardenolide-containing monarch caterpillars without immediate adverse effects. Although they discard the caterpillars’ gut contents, mantids consume sequestered cardenolides. Although consumption of these cardenolides does not elicit an acute response, there may be long-term costs associated with cardenolide consumption. We tested the hypothesis that consumption of monarch caterpillars will adversely affect adult mantid biomass gain and reproductive condition. We reared mantids from egg to adult and assigned them to one of four toxicity groups that differed in the number of monarch caterpillars offered over a 15-day period. Mantids consumed similar amounts of prey biomass during the experiment. Yet, mantids in the high-toxicity group had a higher conversion efficiency and gained more biomass than mantids in other groups. Mantids in all treatment groups produced similar numbers of eggs. However, mantids in the high-toxicity group produced heavier eggs and devoted a greater portion of their biomass toward egg production than those in the control group. This increase in reproductive condition is probably driven by variation in prey nutritional value and/or the nutritional advantages inherent in eating multiple food types. Our results demonstrate the mantid is able to incorporate ‘toxic’ monarch prey into its diet without acute or chronic ill-effects.
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Catanese F, Fernández P, Villalba JJ, Distel RA. The physiological consequences of ingesting a toxic plant (Diplotaxis tenuifolia) influence subsequent foraging decisions by sheep (Ovis aries). Physiol Behav 2016; 167:238-247. [PMID: 27650920 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Revised: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Toxins and nutrients interact and define herbivores' experiences with toxic plants. However, there are still open questions about the mechanisms by which nutrient-toxin interactions affect experience and as a consequence foraging decisions by consumers. This study provides a deeper insight into such mechanisms by using supplemental nutrients, a toxic plant typically avoided by herbivores (wild rocket; Diplotaxis tenuifolia), and a small ruminant (sheep; Ovis aries) as models. Thirty-six sheep were randomly assigned to four treatments (n=9) where animals consumed: wild rocket ("DT"), wild rocket followed by a protein supplement ("DT+P"), wild rocket followed by a protein supplement+a mineral supplement containing iodine and copper ("DT+P+M"), or alfalfa pellets in amounts that paired the ingestion of wild rocket by DT ("CTRL"). Towards the end of the phase of exposure (day 35), DT showed the lowest intake of wild rocket, as well as reduced levels of plasma thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), alanine aminotransferase, and a trend towards reduced hemoglobin relative to DT+P and DT+P+M. Total concentration of serum proteins and albumins were greater in sheep fed the protein supplements, which have probably elicited a protective effect on toxin ingestion. Foraging behavior was then evaluated in an experimental arena where animals could select among randomly distributed buckets containing a fixed amount of wild rocket or variable amounts of barley grain (a preferred food). Regardless of barley grain availability, DT showed lower intake and lower times spent eating wild rocket than DT+P and DT+P+M. Unexpectedly, CTRL (without previous experience with wild rocket) ingested amounts of wild rocket comparable to those observed by DT+P and DT+P+M. A negative feeding experience with wild rocket is needed for animals to display the typical pattern of aversion commonly observed in grazing conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Catanese
- CERZOS, CONICET, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina.
| | - P Fernández
- CERZOS, CONICET, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina; Departamento de Agronomía, Universidad Nacional del Sur, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - J J Villalba
- Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5230, USA
| | - R A Distel
- CERZOS, CONICET, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina; Departamento de Agronomía, Universidad Nacional del Sur, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
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Follow your nose: leaf odour as an important foraging cue for mammalian herbivores. Oecologia 2016; 182:643-51. [PMID: 27368609 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-016-3678-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/12/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Studies of odour-driven foraging by mammals focus on attractant cues emitted by flowers, fruits, and fungi. Yet, the leaves of many plant species worldwide produce odour, which could act as a cue for foraging mammalian herbivores. Leaf odour may thus improve foraging efficiency for such herbivores in many ecosystems by reducing search time, particularly but not only, for plants that are visually obscured. We tested the use of leaf odour by a free-ranging mammalian browser, the swamp wallaby (Wallabia bicolor) to find and browse palatable tree seedlings (Eucalyptus pilularis). Wallabies visited patches non-randomly with respect to the presence of seedlings. In the absence of visual plant cues, they used leaf odour (cut seedlings in vials) to find patches earlier, and visited and investigated them more often than control patches (empty vials), supporting the hypothesis that wallabies used seedling odour to enhance search efficiency. In contrast, the grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus), a grazer, showed no response to seedling odour. When the availability of seedling visual and olfactory cues was manipulated, wallabies browsed seedlings equally quickly in all treatments: upright (normal cues), pinned to the ground (reduced visual cues), and upright plus pinned seedlings (double olfactory cues). Odour cues play a critical role in food-finding by swamp wallabies, and these animals are finely tuned to detecting these cues with their threshold for detection reached by odours from only a single plant. The global significance of leaf odour in foraging by mammalian herbivores consuming conifers, eucalypts, and other odour-rich species requires greater attention.
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33
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Egea A, Allegretti L, Paez Lama S, Grilli D, Fucili M, Guevara J, Villalba J. Diet mixing and condensed tannins help explain foraging preferences by Creole goats facing the physical and chemical diversity of native woody plants in the central Monte desert (Argentina). Anim Feed Sci Technol 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2016.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Najarro MA, Hackett JL, Smith BR, Highfill CA, King EG, Long AD, Macdonald SJ. Identifying Loci Contributing to Natural Variation in Xenobiotic Resistance in Drosophila. PLoS Genet 2015; 11:e1005663. [PMID: 26619284 PMCID: PMC4664282 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural populations exhibit a great deal of interindividual genetic variation in the response to toxins, exemplified by the variable clinical efficacy of pharmaceutical drugs in humans, and the evolution of pesticide resistant insects. Such variation can result from several phenomena, including variable metabolic detoxification of the xenobiotic, and differential sensitivity of the molecular target of the toxin. Our goal is to genetically dissect variation in the response to xenobiotics, and characterize naturally-segregating polymorphisms that modulate toxicity. Here, we use the Drosophila Synthetic Population Resource (DSPR), a multiparent advanced intercross panel of recombinant inbred lines, to identify QTL (Quantitative Trait Loci) underlying xenobiotic resistance, and employ caffeine as a model toxic compound. Phenotyping over 1,700 genotypes led to the identification of ten QTL, each explaining 4.5-14.4% of the broad-sense heritability for caffeine resistance. Four QTL harbor members of the cytochrome P450 family of detoxification enzymes, which represent strong a priori candidate genes. The case is especially strong for Cyp12d1, with multiple lines of evidence indicating the gene causally impacts caffeine resistance. Cyp12d1 is implicated by QTL mapped in both panels of DSPR RILs, is significantly upregulated in the presence of caffeine, and RNAi knockdown robustly decreases caffeine tolerance. Furthermore, copy number variation at Cyp12d1 is strongly associated with phenotype in the DSPR, with a trend in the same direction observed in the DGRP (Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel). No additional plausible causative polymorphisms were observed in a full genomewide association study in the DGRP, or in analyses restricted to QTL regions mapped in the DSPR. Just as in human populations, replicating modest-effect, naturally-segregating causative variants in an association study framework in flies will likely require very large sample sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A. Najarro
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Jennifer L. Hackett
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Brittny R. Smith
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Chad A. Highfill
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth G. King
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Anthony D. Long
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Stuart J. Macdonald
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States of America
- Center for Computational Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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35
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Fine-mapping nicotine resistance loci in Drosophila using a multiparent advanced generation inter-cross population. Genetics 2015; 198:45-57. [PMID: 25236448 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.114.162107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals in nature are frequently challenged by toxic compounds, from those that occur naturally in plants as a defense against herbivory, to pesticides used to protect crops. On exposure to such xenobiotic substances, animals mount a transcriptional response, generating detoxification enzymes and transporters that metabolize and remove the toxin. Genetic variation in this response can lead to variation in the susceptibility of different genotypes to the toxic effects of a given xenobiotic. Here we use Drosophila melanogaster to dissect the genetic basis of larval resistance to nicotine, a common plant defense chemical and widely used addictive drug in humans. We identified quantitative trait loci (QTL) for the trait using the DSPR (Drosophila Synthetic Population Resource), a panel of multiparental advanced intercross lines. Mapped QTL collectively explain 68.4% of the broad-sense heritability for nicotine resistance. The two largest-effect loci-contributing 50.3 and 8.5% to the genetic variation-map to short regions encompassing members of classic detoxification gene families. The largest QTL resides over a cluster of ten UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) genes, while the next largest QTL harbors a pair of cytochrome P450 genes. Using RNAseq we measured gene expression in a pair of DSPR founders predicted to harbor different alleles at both QTL and showed that Ugt86Dd, Cyp28d1, and Cyp28d2 had significantly higher expression in the founder carrying the allele conferring greater resistance. These genes are very strong candidates to harbor causative, regulatory polymorphisms that explain a large fraction of the genetic variation in larval nicotine resistance in the DSPR.
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36
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Pfister JA, Davis TZ, Hall JO, Stegelmeier BL, Panter KE. Elk (Cervus canadensis) preference for feeds varying in selenium concentration1. J Anim Sci 2015; 93:3690-7. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2015-9008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Abstract
In flies and humans, bitter chemicals are known to inhibit sugar detection, but the adaptive role of this inhibition is often overlooked. At best, this inhibition is described as contributing to the rejection of potentially toxic food, but no studies have addressed the relative importance of the direct pathway that involves activating bitter-sensitive cells versus the indirect pathway represented by the inhibition of sugar detection. Using toxins to selectively ablate or inactivate populations of bitter-sensitive cells, we assessed the behavioral responses of flies to sucrose mixed with strychnine (which activates bitter-sensitive cells and inhibits sugar detection) or with L-canavanine (which only activates bitter-sensitive cells). As expected, flies with ablated bitter-sensitive cells failed to detect L-canavanine mixed with sucrose in three different feeding assays (proboscis extension responses, capillary feeding, and two-choice assays). However, such flies were still able to avoid strychnine mixed with sucrose. By means of electrophysiological recordings, we established that bitter molecules differ in their potency to inhibit sucrose detection and that sugar-sensing inhibition affects taste cells on the proboscis and the legs. The optogenetic response of sugar-sensitive cells was not reduced by strychnine, thus suggesting that this inhibition is linked directly to sugar transduction. We postulate that sugar-sensing inhibition represents a mechanism in insects to prevent ingesting harmful substances occurring within mixtures.
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39
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Worker S, Kielland K, Barboza P. Effects of geophagy on food intake, body mass, and nutrient dynamics of snowshoe hares (Lepusamericanus). CAN J ZOOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2014-0237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Geophagy is thought to have several physiological benefits to animals, including mineral supplementation and adsorption of toxins. However, these benefits have rarely been demonstrated experimentally. Using soil from a known lick in northern Alaska, we investigated the effect of geophagy on food intake and mass loss in captive snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus Erxleben, 1777) fed a formulated ration of feltleaf willow leaves (Salix alaxensis (Andersson) Coville), a preferred forage of snowshoe hares. Lick soil contained 4.8% clay, 12.5% carbonates, and had more available Na (72.7 mg·kg−1) than willow leaves. Hares fed willow leaves consumed more soil (15.2 ± 2.0 g·kg–0.75·d−1) than those fed formulated ration (9.3 ± 1.3 g·kg–0.75·d−1). Hares had higher willow intake when offered soil (45.8 ± 2.0 g·kg–0.75·d−1) than those without soil (35.0 ± 2.1 g·kg–0.75·d−1), and willow-fed hares offered soil lost less body mass (P < 0.001) than those without soil. Soil availability resulted in higher digestible intakes of N, Ca, Mg, Na, and K, but not P. These results suggest that the availability of mineral licks may alter forage use and functional response of this generalist herbivore in interior Alaska.
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Affiliation(s)
- S.B. Worker
- Department of Biology and Wildlife, and Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, P.O. Box 757000, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
- Department of Biology and Wildlife, and Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, P.O. Box 757000, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
| | - K. Kielland
- Department of Biology and Wildlife, and Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, P.O. Box 757000, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
- Department of Biology and Wildlife, and Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, P.O. Box 757000, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
| | - P.S. Barboza
- Department of Biology and Wildlife, and Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, P.O. Box 757000, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
- Department of Biology and Wildlife, and Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, P.O. Box 757000, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
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40
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Gregorovičová M, Černíková A. Reactions of green lizards (Lacerta viridis) to major repellent compounds secreted by Graphosoma lineatum (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). ZOOLOGY 2015; 118:176-82. [PMID: 25869384 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2014] [Revised: 12/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The chemical defence of Heteroptera is primarily based on repellent secretions which signal the potential toxicity of the bug to its predators. We tested the aversive reactions of green lizards (Lacerta viridis) towards the major compounds of the defensive secretion of Graphosoma lineatum, specifically: (i) a mixture of three aldehydes: (E)-hex-2-enal, (E)-oct-2-enal, (E)-dec-2-enal; (ii) a mixture of these three aldehydes and tridecane; (iii) oxoaldehyde: (E)-4-oxohex-2-enal; (iv) secretion extracted from metathoracic scent glands of G. lineatum adults and (v) hexane as a non-polar solvent. All chemicals were presented on a palatable food (Tenebrio molitor larvae). The aversive reactions of the green lizards towards the mealworms were evaluated by observing the approach latencies, attack latencies and approach-attack intervals. The green lizards exhibited a strong aversive reaction to the mixture of three aldehydes. Tridecane reduced the aversive reaction to the aldehyde mixture. Oxoaldehyde caused the weakest, but still significant, aversive reaction. The secretion from whole metathoracic scent glands also clearly had an aversive effect on the green lizards. Moreover, when a living specimen of G. lineatum or Pyrrhocoris apterus (another aposematic red-and-black prey) was presented to the green lizards before the trials with the aldehyde mixture, the aversive effect of the mixture was enhanced. In conclusion, the mixture of three aldehydes had the strong aversive effect and could signal the potential toxicity of G. lineatum to the green lizards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Gregorovičová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 44 Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Alena Černíková
- Institute of Applied Mathematics and Information Technologies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 6, 128 43 Prague, Czech Republic
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41
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Affiliation(s)
- Peri A. Mason
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Colorado Boulder UCB 334 Colorado 80309 USA
| | - Michael S. Singer
- Biology Department Wesleyan University Middletown Connecticut 06459 USA
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Richter I, Fidler AE. Marine invertebrate xenobiotic-activated nuclear receptors: their application as sensor elements in high-throughput bioassays for marine bioactive compounds. Mar Drugs 2014; 12:5590-618. [PMID: 25421319 PMCID: PMC4245547 DOI: 10.3390/md12115590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Revised: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Developing high-throughput assays to screen marine extracts for bioactive compounds presents both conceptual and technical challenges. One major challenge is to develop assays that have well-grounded ecological and evolutionary rationales. In this review we propose that a specific group of ligand-activated transcription factors are particularly well-suited to act as sensors in such bioassays. More specifically, xenobiotic-activated nuclear receptors (XANRs) regulate transcription of genes involved in xenobiotic detoxification. XANR ligand-binding domains (LBDs) may adaptively evolve to bind those bioactive, and potentially toxic, compounds to which organisms are normally exposed to through their specific diets. A brief overview of the function and taxonomic distribution of both vertebrate and invertebrate XANRs is first provided. Proof-of-concept experiments are then described which confirm that a filter-feeding marine invertebrate XANR LBD is activated by marine bioactive compounds. We speculate that increasing access to marine invertebrate genome sequence data, in combination with the expression of functional recombinant marine invertebrate XANR LBDs, will facilitate the generation of high-throughput bioassays/biosensors of widely differing specificities, but all based on activation of XANR LBDs. Such assays may find application in screening marine extracts for bioactive compounds that could act as drug lead compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Richter
- Environmental Technology Group, Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7012, New Zealand.
| | - Andrew E Fidler
- Environmental Technology Group, Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7012, New Zealand.
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43
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Egea A, Allegretti L, Paez Lama S, Grilli D, Sartor C, Fucili M, Guevara J, Passera C. Selective behavior of Creole goats in response to the functional heterogeneity of native forage species in the central Monte desert, Argentina. Small Rumin Res 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2014.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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44
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Villalba JJ, Miller J, Ungar ED, Landau SY, Glendinning J. Ruminant self-medication against gastrointestinal nematodes: evidence, mechanism, and origins. Parasite 2014; 21:31. [PMID: 24971486 PMCID: PMC4073621 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2014032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal helminths challenge ruminants in ways that reduce their fitness. In turn, ruminants have evolved physiological and behavioral adaptations that counteract this challenge. Ruminants display anorexia and avoidance behaviors, which tend to reduce the incidence of parasitism. In addition, ruminants appear to learn to self-medicate against gastrointestinal parasites by increasing consumption of plant secondary compounds with antiparasitic actions. This selective feeding improves health and fitness. Here, we review the evidence for self-medication in ruminants, propose a hypothesis to explain self-medicative behaviors (based on post-ingestive consequences), and discuss mechanisms (e.g., enhanced neophilia, social transmission) that may underlie the ontogeny and spread of self-medicative behaviors in social groups. A better understanding of the mechanisms that underlie and trigger self-medication in parasitized animals will help scientists devise innovative and more sustainable management strategies for improving ruminant health and well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J. Villalba
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Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University 5230 Old Main Hill Logan Utah
84322-5230 USA
| | - James Miller
-
Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University 70803
Baton Rouge USA
| | - Eugene D. Ungar
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Department of Natural Resources, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center Bet Dagan
50250 Israel
| | - Serge Y. Landau
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Department of Natural Resources, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center Bet Dagan
50250 Israel
| | - John Glendinning
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Department of Biology, Barnard College, Columbia University 3009 Broadway New York NY USA
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Egea AV, Hall JO, Miller J, Spackman C, Villalba JJ. Reduced neophobia: a potential mechanism explaining the emergence of self-medicative behavior in sheep. Physiol Behav 2014; 135:189-97. [PMID: 24955494 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Gastrointestinal helminths challenge ruminants in ways that reduce their fitness. In turn, ruminants have evolved physiological and behavioral adaptations that counteract this challenge. For instance, emerging behavioral evidence suggests that ruminants self-select medicinal compounds and foods that reduce parasitic burdens. However, the mechanism/s leading to self-medicative behaviors in sick animals is still unknown. We hypothesized that when homeostasis is disturbed by a parasitic infection, consumers should respond by increasing the acceptability of novel foods relative to healthy individuals. Three groups of lambs (N=10) were dosed with 0 (Control-C), 5000 (Medium-M) and 15000 (High-H) L3 stage larvae of Haemonchus contortus. When parasites had reached the adult stage, all animals were offered novel foods and flavors in pens and then novel forages at pasture. Ingestive responses by parasitized lambs were different from non-parasitized Control animals and they varied with the type of food and flavor on offer. Parasitized lambs consumed initially more novel beet pulp and less novel beet pulp mixed with tannins than Control lambs, but the pattern reversed after 9d of exposure to these foods. Parasitized lambs ingested more novel umami-flavored food and less novel bitter-flavored food than Control lambs. When offered choices of novel unflavored and bitter-flavored foods or different forage species to graze, parasitized lambs selected a more diverse array of foods than Control lambs. Reductions in food neophobia or selection of a more diverse diet may enhance the likelihood of sick herbivores encountering novel medicinal plants and nutritious forages that contribute to restore health.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Vanina Egea
- Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas (IADIZA), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Jeffery O Hall
- Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | - James Miller
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Casey Spackman
- Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | - Juan J Villalba
- Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA.
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46
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Kasumyan AO, Tinkova TV. Spreading of deterrency as a means of chemical defense among aquatic organisms inhabiting the coral reefs of Vietnam. DOKLADY BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES : PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE USSR, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTIONS 2014; 454:39-42. [PMID: 24659285 DOI: 10.1134/s0012496614010086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A O Kasumyan
- Department of Ichthyology, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow, 119992, Russia
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47
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Jeong YT, Shim J, Oh SR, Yoon HI, Kim CH, Moon SJ, Montell C. An odorant-binding protein required for suppression of sweet taste by bitter chemicals. Neuron 2013; 79:725-37. [PMID: 23972598 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Animals often must decide whether or not to consume a diet that contains competing attractive and aversive compounds. Here, using the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, we describe a mechanism that influences this decision. Addition of bitter compounds to sucrose suppressed feeding behavior, and this inhibition depended on an odorant-binding protein (OBP) termed OBP49a. In wild-type flies, bitter compounds suppressed sucrose-induced action potentials, and the inhibition was impaired in Obp49a mutants. However, loss of OBP49a did not affect action potentials in sugar- or bitter-activated gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) when the GRNs were presented with just one type of tastant. OBP49a was expressed in accessory cells and acted non-cell-autonomously to attenuate nerve firings in sugar-activated GRNs when bitter compounds were combined with sucrose. These findings demonstrate an unexpected role for an OBP in taste and identify a molecular player involved in the integration of opposing attractive and aversive gustatory inputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Taek Jeong
- Department of Oral Biology, BK21 Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, 250 Seongsanno, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 120-752, Korea
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48
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Good AN, Kavaliers M, Ossenkopp KP. Modeling the effects of low toxin levels in food on feeding: dose-dependent reduction of fluid intake by low levels of lithium chloride. Toxicol Lett 2013; 221:191-6. [PMID: 23827506 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2013.06.230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined the dose related effects of low levels of the toxin, LiCl, on the ingestion of a palatable sucrose plus salt solution. Over five days (acquisition phase) rats were presented with a 0.3M sucrose solution containing one of the following salt combinations: 0.12 M NaCl (n=10 negative control group); 0.005 M LiCl+0.115 NaCl (n=10); 0.01 M LiCl+0.11 NaCl (n=10); 0.015 M LiCl+0.105 M NaCl (n=10); 0.02 M LiCl+0.10 M NaCl (n=10); and 0.12 M LiCl (n=8 positive control group). During an extinction phase (5 days), all rats were presented with 0.3M Sucrose+0.12 M NaCl solution. Fluid intake levels and number of licks were quantified on each day. At low LiCl concentration levels rats exhibited a dose related reduction in amount consumed and number of licks of the sucrose plus salt solutions. This toxin related suppression of fluid intake and licking rapidly dissipated during the extinction phase. The present findings support the hypothesis that rats use a behavioral tolerance mechanism to regulate their intake of foods containing low levels of toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber N Good
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond Street, London, ON N6A 5C2, Canada.
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49
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Gracida X, Eckmann CR. Mind the gut: Dietary impact on germline stem cells and fertility. Commun Integr Biol 2013; 6:e26004. [PMID: 24563704 PMCID: PMC3917968 DOI: 10.4161/cib.26004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals thrive in environments where food resources are abundant. While this correlation between population growth and food abundance is well established, much less is known about the influence of diet quality on physiological and developmental programs that support animal reproduction. Here we discuss dietary impact on fertility, and highlight a recent report on the activity of a nuclear receptor that protects against dietary metabolites to maintain germline stem cell integrity and reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xicotencatl Gracida
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics; Dresden, Germany ; Current affiliation: FAS Center for Systems Biology; Harvard University; Cambridge, MA USA
| | - Christian R Eckmann
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics; Dresden, Germany
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50
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Gracida X, Eckmann CR. Fertility and germline stem cell maintenance under different diets requires nhr-114/HNF4 in C. elegans. Curr Biol 2013; 23:607-13. [PMID: 23499532 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.02.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2012] [Revised: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Animals can thrive on variable food resources as a result of autonomous processes and beneficial relationships with their gut microbes [1]. Food intake elicits major physiological changes, which are counteracted by transient systemic responses that maintain homeostasis in the organism. This integration of external information occurs through cellular sensory elements, such as nuclear receptors, which modulate gene expression in response to specific cues [2]. Given the importance of germline stem cells (GSCs) for the development of the germline and the continuity of species, it is reasonable to assume that GSCs might be shielded from the negative influence of environmental perturbations. To our knowledge, however, there are no mechanisms reported that protect GSCs from harmful dietary metabolites. Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a model, we report that the somatic activity of the conserved nuclear receptor nhr-114/HNF4 protects GSC integrity from dietary metabolites. In the absence of nhr-114 and on certain bacterial diets, otherwise somatically normal animals accumulate germ cell division defects during development and become sterile. We found that, in nhr-114(-) animals, the induction of germline defects and sterility depend on bacterial metabolic status, with respect to the essential amino acid tryptophan. This illustrates an animal-microbe interaction in which somatic nuclear receptor activity preserves the germline by buffering against dietary metabolites, most likely through a somatic detoxifying response. Overall, our findings uncover an unprecedented, and presumably evolutionarily conserved, soma-to-germline axis of communication that maintains reproductive robustness on variable food resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xicotencatl Gracida
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauer Str. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
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