Optimal Frequency of Retinopathy Screening in Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes: Markov Modeling Approach Based on 30 Years of Data

Diabetic retinopathy in the pediatric population: Pathophysiology, screening, current and future treatments

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a sight threatening complication of diabetes mellitus (DM). The incidence of DR in the pediatric population has increased in the last two decades and it is expected to further rise in the future, following the increase in DM prevalence and obesity in youth. As early stages of the retinal disease are asymptomatic, screening programs are of extreme importance to guarantee a prompt diagnosis and avoid progression to more advanced, sight threatening stages. The management of DR comprises a wide range of actions starting from glycemic control, continuing with systemic and local medical treatments, up to para-surgical and surgical approaches to deal with the more aggressive complications. In this review we will describe the pathophysiology of DR trying to understand all the possible targets for currently available or future treatments. We will briefly consider the impact of screening techniques, screening strategies and their social and economic impact. Finally a large part of the review will be dedicated to medical and surgical treatments for DR including both currently available and under development therapies. Most of the available data in the literature on DR are focused on the adult population. The aim of our work is to provide clinicians and researchers with a comprehensive overview of the state of the art regarding DR in the pediatric population, considering the increasing numbers of this diseases in youth and the inevitable consequences that such a chronic disease could have if poorly managed in children.