Increasing task complexity and ice hockey skills of youth athletes

Dual-task costs in speed tasks: a comparison between elite ice hockey, open-skill and closed-skill sports athletes

Introduction

Ice hockey is a high pace sports game that requires players to integrate multiple skills. Players face perceptive, cognitive, and motor tasks concurrently; hence, players are regularly exposed to dual- or multi-task demands. Dual-tasking has been shown to lead to decreased performance in one or both performed tasks. The degree of performance reductions might be modulated by the exhaustion of cognitive resources. Literature on dual-task paradigms that combine sport-relevant elements is scarce. Therefore, a novel paradigm combining cyclical speed of the lower extremities and concurrent visuo-verbal speed reading was tested and validated. Additionally, to understand the nature of dual-task costs, the relationship between these costs and cognitive performance was assessed. We hypothesized occurrence of dual-task costs in all athletes without relationship to single task performance. Differences in dual-task cost were expected between open-skill and closed-skill sports, as well as differing expertise levels. Level of cognitive function was expected to explain some variance in dual-task cost.

Methods

A total of 322 elite athletes (120 ice hockey, 165 other team sports, 37 closed-skill sports) participated in this study. Each athlete performed a tapping task, a visuo-verbal speed-reading task, and both tasks simultaneously. All ice hockey athletes performed additional cognitive tests assessing processing speed, spatial working memory, sustained attention, two choice reaction time, and motor inhibition.

Results

The results of paired-sample t-tests confirmed significant dual-task costs for all sport groups (p < 0.001). Single-task performance and dual-task costs correlated weakly in a positive direction. A one-way ANOVA revealed significantly greater costs in closed-skill sports athletes than in ice hockey and other sports athletes. No significant differences in dual-task costs were found between teams of differing expertise levels. Lastly, no significant regression model was found to predict dual-task costs from cognitive test performance.

Discussion

Our study suggests that this novel dual-task paradigm was successful in inducing dual-task costs for all elite athletes. Since it distinguishes between closed-skill and open-skill sports athletes, it might be a valuable diagnostic tool for performance and for talent development of open-skill athletes. Dual-task costs could not be relevantly predicted via cognitive performance measures, questioning cognitive resource theories as an explanation for dual-task costs.

Assessment and Conceptualization of Perceived Competence in Ice Hockey: A Scale Development and Validation Study

Perceived competence plays a crucial role in establishing environments favorable to individual development in youth sport. As most assessment tools of perceived competence are not sport-specific, they have limited usefulness for sport practitioners and researchers. This study had two-fold aims: (i) to develop a perceived competence assessment tool specific to ice hockey; and (ii) to examine its factorial structure and internal consistency. We first developed an initial 29-item version of this ice hockey competence self-report scale, using a group of ice hockey stakeholders and sports science experts to develop the items and a pilot sample of 42 hockey players to confirm test-retest reliability. Finally, we validated the scale among a cohort of 770 adolescent ice hockey players (M age = 14.78, SD = 1.60 years). Results from exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed that perceived competence in ice hockey was defined by six dimensions, with rejection of seven items. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) suggested that the 6-factor first order model was the best fit with the conceptualization of perceived competence in ice hockey (CFI = 0.938, RMSEA = 0.044). The final, 22-item questionnaire now provides a reliable and valid measure of perceived competence in hockey for adolescent participants. It has promise for evaluating future interventions aiming to foster young athletes' perceived confidence through sport.

Technical skills in complex tennis situations: Dutch talented players U15 compared to players U17

Introduction

Technical skills in complex situations appear crucial for progress towards elite tennis performance. However, it is unknown how these skills develop in different age categories in a group of talented youth players. The aim of this study is to evaluate possible differences in technical skills among Dutch talented youth tennis players U15 compared to U17.

Methods

A total of 19 players (12 males, 7 females; age 14.6 ± 1.4 years) were tested on ball speed, accuracy, percentage errors and spin rate using the on-court Dutch Technical-Tactical Tennis Test. With a ball machine, four games were simulated which were either fixed (game 1 and game 2) or variable (game 3 and game 4), depending on the complexity of the task. Each game consisted of two offensive, two neutral and two defensive rallies, representing different tactical situations.

Results

A two-way ANOVA revealed a statistically significant interaction between the effects of age category and sex for ball speed (F(1,15) = 5.472, p = 0.034, η ² = 0.267), indicating that males U17 produced higher ball speed compared to males U15, whereas no differences were found between females U15 and U17. A one-way ANCOVA showed that, regardless of sex, players U17 scored significantly higher on accuracy than players U15 (F(1,16) = 5.021, p = 0.040, η ² = 0.239). No differences were found between players U15 and U17 for spin rate and percentage errors (p > .05), although there was a medium to large effect size for males U17 to produce higher spin rates compared to males U15. A closer examination of accuracy revealed that players U17 scored significantly higher compared to players U15 in game 4 (F(1,17) = 6.358, p = .022, η ² = .272) and in defensive situations (F(1,17) = 9.602, p = .007, η ² = .361).

Discussion

In conclusion, the results of the current study suggest that technical skills, especially ball speed for males and accuracy in complex situations for both males and females, continue to develop in adolescence in talented tennis players. There is an increased understanding about underlying technical skills that contribute to progress towards elite tennis performance. To effectively develop technical skills, coaches are encouraged to design specific practices where these skills are performed in complex situations under high cognitive and temporal pressure.

What Differences Exist in Professional Ice Hockey Performance Using Virtual Reality (VR) Technology between Professional Hockey Players and Freestyle Wrestlers? (a Pilot Study)

There is little research on the study of specific characteristics that contribute to the faster adaptation of athletes during the transition from one sport to another. We used virtual reality (VR) to study the differences between professional ice hockey players and other sport professionals (freestyle wrestlers), who were novices in hockey in terms of motor responses and efficiency performance, on different levels of difficulty. In the VR environment, four levels of difficulty (four blocks) were simulated, depended on the speed of the puck and the distance to it (Bl1-60-80 km/h and 18 m; Bl2-60-100 km/h, distances 12 and 18 m; Bl3-speeds up to 170 km/h and 6, 12, and 18 m; Bl4-the pucks are presented in a series of two (in sequence with a 1 s interval)). The results of the study showed that the hockey professionals proved to have more stable movement patterns of the knee and hip joints. They also made fewer head movements as a response to stimuli during all runs (0.66 vs. 1.25, p = 0.043). Thus, working out on these parameters can contribute to the faster adaptation of wrestlers in developing professional ice hockey skills.

Proof of Concept of Novel Visuo-Spatial-Motor Fall Prevention Training for Old People

Falls in the geriatric population are one of the most important causes of disabilities in this age group. Its consequences impose a great deal of economic burden on health and insurance systems. This study was conducted by a multidisciplinary team with the aim of evaluating the effect of visuo-spatial-motor training for the prevention of falls in older adults. The subjects consisted of 31 volunteers aged 60 to 92 years who were studied in three groups: (1) A group under standard physical training, (2) a group under visuo-spatial-motor interventions, and (3) a control group (without any intervention). The results of the study showed that visual-spatial motor exercises significantly reduced the risk of falls of the subjects.

Altered Brain Activation in Youth following Concussion: Using a Dual-task Paradigm

A concussion is known as a functional injury affecting brain communication, integration, and processing. There is a need to objectively measure how concussions disrupt brain activation while completing ecologically relevant tasks.The objective of this study was to compare brain activation patterns between concussion and comparison groups (non-concussed youth) during a cognitive-motor single and dual-task paradigm utilizing functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in regions of the frontal-parietal attention network and compared to task performance.Youth with concussion generally exhibited hyperactivation and recruitment of additional brain regions in the dorsal lateral prefrontal (DLPFC), superior (SPC) and inferior parietal cortices (IPC), which are associated with processing, information integration, and response selection. Additionally, hyper- or hypo-activation patterns were associated with slower processing speed on the cognitive task. Our findings corroborate the growing literature suggesting that neural recovery may be delayed compared to the restoration of behavioral performance post-concussion.Concussion, near-infrared spectroscopy, dual-task paradigm, cognitive, motor, brain activation.

Traditional Neuropsychological Testing Does Not Predict Motor-Cognitive Test Performance

The ecological validity of neuropsychological testing (NT) has been questioned in the sports environment. A frequent criticism is that NT, mostly consisting of pen and paper or digital assessments, lacks relevant bodily movement. This study aimed to identify the determinants of a newly developed testing battery integrating both cognitive and motor demands. Twenty active individuals (25 ± 3 years, 11 males) completed the new motor-cognitive testing battery (MC), traditional NT (Stroop test, Trail Making test, Digit Span test) and isolated assessments of motor function (MF; Y-balance test, 20m-sprint, counter-movement jump). Kendal’s tau and partial Spearman correlations were used to detect associations between MC and NT/MF. Except for two items (Reactive Agility A and counter-movement jump; Run-Decide and sprint time; r = 0.37, p < 0.05), MC was not related to MF. Similarly, MC and NT were mostly unrelated, even when controlling for the two significant motor covariates (p > 0.05). The only MC item with (weak to moderate) associations to NT was the Memory Span test (Digit Span backwards and composite; r = 0.43–0.54, p < 0.05). In sum, motor-cognitive function appears to be largely independent from its two assumed components NT and MF and may represent a new parameter in performance diagnostics.

The relationship between task difficulty and motor performance complexity

Difficult tasks are commonly equated with complex tasks across many behaviors. Motor task difficulty is traditionally defined via Fitts' law, using evaluation criteria based on spatial movement constraints. Complexity of data is typically evaluated using non-linear computational approaches. In this project, we investigate the potential to evaluate task difficulty via behavioral (motor performance) complexity in a Fitts-type task. Use of non-linear approaches allows for inclusion of many features of motor actions that are not currently included in the Fitts-type paradigm. Our results indicate that tasks defined as more difficult (using Fitts movement IDs) are not associated with complex motor behaviors; rather, an inverse relationship exists between these two concepts. Use of non-linear techniques allowed for the detection of behavioral differences in motor performance over the entire action trajectory in the presence of action errors and among neutrally co-constrained effectors not detected using traditional Fitts'-type analyses utilizing movement time measures. Our findings indicate that task difficulty may potentially be inferred using non-linear measures, particularly in ecological situations that do not obey the Fitts-type testing paradigm. While we are optimistic regarding these initial findings, further work is needed to assess the full potential of the approach.

Static and dynamic single leg postural control performance during dual-task paradigms

Combining dynamic postural control assessments and cognitive tasks may give clinicians a more accurate indication of postural control under sport-like conditions compared to single-task assessments. We examined postural control, cognitive and squatting performance of healthy individuals during static and dynamic postural control assessments in single- and dual-task paradigms. Thirty participants (female = 22, male = 8; age = 20.8 ± 1.6 years, height = 157.9 ± 13.0 cm, mass = 67.8 ± 20.6 kg) completed single-leg stance and single-leg squat assessments on a force plate individually (single-task) and concurrently (dual-task) with two cognitive assessments, a modified Stroop test and the Brooks Spatial Memory Test. Outcomes included centre of pressure speed, 95% confidence ellipse, squat depth and speed and cognitive test measures (percentage of correct answers and reaction time). Postural control performance varied between postural control assessments and testing paradigms. Participants did not squat as deep and squatted slower (P < 0.001) during dual-task paradigms (≤12.69 ± 3.4 cm squat depth, ≤16.20 ± 4.6 cm · s^-1 squat speed) compared to single-task paradigms (14.57 ± 3.6 cm squat depth, 19.65 ± 5.5 cm · s^-1 squat speed). The percentage of correct answers did not change across testing conditions, but Stroop reaction time (725.81 ± 59.2 ms; F_2,58 = 7.725, P = 0.001) was slowest during single-leg squats compared to baseline (691.64 ± 80.1 ms; P = 0.038) and single-task paradigms (681.33 ± 51.5 ms; P < 0.001). Dynamic dual-task assessments may be more challenging to the postural control system and may better represent postural control performance during dynamic activities.

Using dual task walking as an aid to assess executive dysfunction ecologically in neurological populations: A narrative review

Within rehabilitation, clinical assessment plays a crucial role in diagnosis, prognostication and making decisions about return to function. The ecological validity of the assessment of executive dysfunction has become a particular focus in neuropsychology and is gaining interest in mobility research and neurological rehabilitation of acquired brain injury or degenerative neurological diseases. In this narrative review, we look at how the task of walking and the inseparable cognitive demands and interference of the surrounding environment are exploited in dual task walking (DTW) paradigms to expose executive dysfunction. While quite a number of studies and reviews have recently focused on the utility of DTW for gait assessment, particularly to assess fall risk, very little consideration has been given to the level of ecological validity required. This paper directly addresses this issue with discussion of evidence and lacunas related to task, personal and technological factors that should be addressed in order to exploit fully DTW paradigms as an ecological assessment tool.

A randomized comparative study of manually assisted versus robotic-assisted body weight supported treadmill training in persons with a traumatic brain injury

OBJECTIVES

(1) To compare the effects of robotic-assisted treadmill training (RATT) and manually assisted treadmill training (MATT) in participants with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and (2) to determine the potential impact on the symmetry of temporal walking parameters, 6-minute walk test, and the mobility domain of the Stroke Impact Scale, version 3.0 (SIS).

DESIGN

Randomized prospective study.

SUBJECTS

A total of 16 participants with TBI and a baseline over ground walking self-selected velocity (SSV) of ≥0.2 m/s to 0.6 m/s randomly assigned to either the RATT or MATT group.

INTERVENTION

Gait training for 45 minutes, 3 times a week with either RATT or MATT for a total of 18 training sessions.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Primary: Overground walking SSV, maximal velocity. Secondary: Spatiotemporal symmetry, 6-minute walk test, and SIS.

RESULTS

Between-group differences were not statistically significant for any measure. However, from pretraining to post-training, the average SSV increased by 49.8% for the RATT group (P = .01) and by 31% for MATT group (P = .06). The average maximal velocity increased by 14.9% for the RATT group (P = .06) and by 30.8% for the MATT group (P = .01). Less staffing and effort was needed for RATT in this study. Step-length asymmetry ratio improved during SSV by 33.1% for the RATT group (P = .01) and by 9.1% for the MATT group (P = .73). The distance walked increased by 11.7% for the robotic group (P = .21) and by 19.3% for manual group (P = .03). A statistically significant improvement in the mobility domain of the SIS was found for both groups (P ≤ .03).

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study demonstrate greater improvement in symmetry of gait (step length) for RATT and no significant differences between RATT and MATT with regard to improvement in gait velocity, endurance, and SIS. Our study provides evidence that participants with a chronic TBI can experience improvements in gait parameters with gait training with either MATT or RATT.