Monitoring effectiveness of programmes to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission in lower-income countries

PMTCT Data Management and Reporting during the Transition Phase of Implementing the Rationalised Registers in Amathole District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

BACKGROUND

The National Department of Health, in March 2015, launched the implementation of Rationalisation of Register, aimed at reducing the amount of time invested in completing the registers and collecting data. Therefore, the number of registers used in the South African healthcare facilities was reduced from 56 to 6.

OBJECTIVES

This study explored the effect of the rollout of Rationalisation of Register on the documentation and reporting of Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) programme data with the existing source documents during the transitional period, especially with routine data collected and reported at various health care system levels.

METHODS

A mixed-method research approach was used, and three source documents, namely: Tally sheet, Antenatal care (ANC) register, and Tick register used for collecting and reporting PMTCT data, were reviewed. An in-depth interview was conducted with healthcare workers in four sub-districts of the Amathole district, Eastern Cape province of South Africa.

RESULTS

All selected facilities completed the three source documents. The facilities consolidated their PMTCT data monthly before reporting to the District Health Information System (DHIS). Less than half of the facilities had already started using the rationalised registers. However, they did not transition entirely because they still use other registers, especially the ANC register. Reasons for not displaying facility performance include clinicians not properly completing the clients' information, and a shortage of staff to collect, report, and analyse data.

CONCLUSIONS

PMTCT data management and reporting were challenging during the transitioning phase of implementing the rationalised registers because of different timelines instituted in the facilities and non-availability of source documents in some facilities. Capacity of the clinic staff involved in data collection should be built on programme care pathways, data monitoring, data capturing into the Routine Health Information System and complemented with coaching, mentoring, and supportive supervision for improved programme outputs and outcomes.

Influence of Male Partners on HIV Disclosure Among South African Women in a Cluster Randomized PMTCT Intervention

Disclosure of HIV serostatus is beneficial for women, their partners, and their infants as it enables women to actively participate in preventative care (Hodgson et al. in PLoS ONE 9(11):e111421, 2014; Odiachi et al. in Reprod Health 15(1):36, 2018). Therefore, it is important that interventions addressing HIV prevention include elements that foster disclosure of HIV to partners. This study conducted in South Africa utilizes the "Protect Your Family" (PYF) behavioral intervention and compares Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT) among women participating in the program versus those in a control program. Within both groups, male partners were either present or not present for the intervention. The purpose of this study was to examine differential disclosure over time for individuals in the different conditions and partner involvement. A firth logistic regression revealed an interaction in the experimental condition with male partners participating (b = - 2.84, SE = 1.56, p = .012), in which female participants were less likely to disclose their HIV status over time. Findings from this study illustrate that additional efforts are needed to empower women to disclose their HIV status.

18-24-month HIV-free survival as measurement of the effectiveness of prevention of mother-to-child transmission in the context of lifelong antiretroviral therapy: Results of a community-based survey

Introduction

Population-based HIV-free survival at 18–24 months of age among HIV-exposed infants in high prevalence settings in the era of treatment for all is largely unknown. We conducted a community-based survey to determine outcomes of HIV-exposed infants at 18–24 months in Lesotho.

Methods

Between November 2015 and December 2016, we conducted a survey among households with a child born 18–24 months prior to data collection. Catchment areas from 25 health facilities in Butha-Buthe, Maseru, Mohale’s Hoek and Thaba-Tseka districts were randomly selected using probability proportional to size sampling. Consecutive households were visited and eligible consenting caregivers and children were enrolled.

Rapid HIV antibody testing was performed on mothers of unknown HIV status (never tested or tested HIV-negative >3 months prior) and their children, and to children born to known HIV-positive mothers. Information on demographics, health-seeking behavior, HIV, and mortality were captured for mothers and children, including those who died.

The difference in survival between subgroups was determined using the log-rank test.

Results

Of the 1,852 mothers/caregivers enrolled, 570 mothers were HIV-positive. The mother-to-child HIV transmission rate was 5.7% [95% CI: 4.0–8.0]. The mortality rate was 2.6% [95% CI: 1.6–4.2] among HIV-exposed children compared to 1.4% (95% CI: 0.9–2.3) among HIV-unexposed children. HIV-free survival was 91.8% [95% CI: 89.2–93.8] among HIV-exposed infants. Disclosure of mother’s HIV status (aOR = 4.9, 95% CI: 1.3–18.2) and initiation of cotrimoxazole prophylaxis in the child (aOR = 3.9, 95% CI: 1.2–12.6) were independently associated with increased HIV-free survival while child growth problems (aOR = 0.2, 95% CI: 0.09–0.5) were independently associated with reduced HIV-free survival.

Conclusion

Even in the context of lifelong antiretroviral therapy among pregnant and breastfeeding women, HIV has a significant effect on survival among HIV-exposed children compared to unexposed children. Lesotho has not reached elimination of HIV transmission from mother to child.

At-scale evidence from 26 national household surveys on the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV cascade

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) can virtually eliminate vertical HIV transmission, yet more than 160 000 children were newly infected with HIV in 2016. We conducted a pooled analysis of national household surveys from 26 sub-Saharan African countries and calculated PMTCT coverage and access using unconditional and conditional likelihoods. Logistic regression analysis adjusted for country of residence was used to measure the association between socio-demographic factors and PMTCT coverage. The largest loss in the PMTCT cascade access occurred at being offered a HIV test at an antenatal care (ANC) clinic visit, with only 62.6% of women visiting an ANC clinic being offered a HIV test. Logistic regression analysis adjusted for country of residence indicated that completing primary school was associated with a higher likelihood of completing each step in the PMTCT cascade, including being offered a HIV test [odds ratio 2.18 (95% CI: 2.09-2.26)]. Urban residence was associated with a higher likelihood of completing each step in the PMTCT cascade, including being offered a HIV test [odds ratio 2.23 (95% CI: 2.15-2.30)]. To increase progression through the PMTCT cascade, policy-makers should target the likelihood an ANC client is offered a HIV test and the likelihood of facility delivery, steps where access is the lowest. Low educational attainment women and women in rural areas appear to have the lowest coverage in the cascade, suggesting that policy-makers target these individuals.

A preliminary cervical cancer screening cascade for eight provinces rural Chinese women: a descriptive analysis of cervical cancer screening cases in a 3-stage framework

Background:

Cascade analysis is an effective method to analyze the processing data of an event, such as a provided service or a series of examinations. This study aimed to develop a primary cervical cancer screening cascade in China to promote the quality of the screening process.

Methods:

We designed a cervical cancer screening cascade in China according to the program flow chart. It had three stages, each with two steps and one result. Data from 117,522 women aged 35 to 64 years in the Rural Cervical Cancer Surveillance Project from January 1, 2014, to December 31, 2014, were collected to analyze the main results of the cascade. The data and proportion are used to describe the follow-up of cervical cancer and pre-cancer detection rate.

Results:

In 2014, 117,522 (80.94% of all cases reported by the Rural Cervical Cancer Surveillance Project) women aged 35 to 64 years had not received cervical cytology in the previous 3 years. The pre-cancer and cancer detection rates were 256.12/100,000 and 16.16/100,000, respectively. A total of 3031 cases failed to follow-up through the screening process, and 1189, 1555, and 287 cases were lost at cervical cytology, colposcopy, and histopathological screening stages, respectively. The estimated cases of pre-cancer and cancer cases would have been 544 and 34, respectively, and the estimated detection rates of pre-cancer and cancer would have been 462.89/100,000 and 28.93/100,000, respectively.

Conclusion:

In order to increase the detection rate of cervical cancer, cervical cancer screening staff should focus on increasing the rate of follow-up of those who are positive for cervical cancer screening (ie, those with positive cytology results), especially for the 40 to 44 years age range.

Missed opportunities for early infant diagnosis of HIV in rural North-Central Nigeria: A cascade analysis from the INSPIRE MoMent study

Background

Early identification of HIV-infected infants for treatment is critical for survival. Efficient uptake of early infant diagnosis (EID) requires timely presentation of HIV-exposed infants, same-day sample collection, and prompt release of results. The MoMent (Mother Mentor) Nigeria study investigated the impact of structured peer support on EID presentation and maternal retention. This cascade analysis highlights missed opportunities for EID and infant treatment initiation during the study.

Methods

HIV-infected pregnant women and their infants were recruited at 20 rural Primary Healthcare Centers. Routine infant HIV DNA PCR testing was performed at centralized laboratories using dried blood spot (DBS) samples ideally collected by age two months. EID outcomes data were abstracted from study case report forms and facility registers. Descriptive statistics summarized gaps and missed opportunities in the EID cascade.

Results

Out of 497 women enrolled, delivery data was available for 445 (90.8%), to whom 415 of 455 (91.2%) infants were live-born. Out of 408 live-born infants with available data, 341 (83.6%) presented for DBS sampling at least once. Only 75.4% (257/341) were sampled, with 81.7% (210/257) sampled at first presentation. Only 199/257 (77.4%) sampled infants had results available up to 28 months post-collection. Two (1.0%) of the 199 infants tested HIV-positive; one infant died before treatment initiation and the other was lost to follow-up.

Conclusions

While nearly 85% of infants presented for sampling, there were multiple missed opportunities, largely due to health system and not necessarily patient-level failures. These included infants presenting without being sampled, presenting multiple times before samples were collected, and getting sampled but results not forthcoming. Finally, neither of the two HIV-positive infants were linked to treatment within the follow-up period, which may have led to the death of one. To facilitate patient compliance and HIV-free infant survival, quality improvement approaches should be optimized for EID commodity availability, consistent DBS sample collection, efficient processing/result release, and prompt infant treatment initiation.

Increasing Proportion of HIV-Infected Pregnant Zambian Women Attending Antenatal Care Are Already on Antiretroviral Therapy (2010-2015)

Introduction: Accurate estimates of coverage of prevention of mother-to-child (PMTCT) services among HIV-infected pregnant women are vital for monitoring progress toward HIV elimination targets. The achievement of high coverage and uptake of services along the PMTCT cascade is crucial for national and international mother-to child transmission (MTCT) elimination goals. In eastern and southern Africa, MTCT rate fell from 18% of infants born to mothers living with HIV in 2010 to 6% in 2015. This paper describes the degree to which World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for PMTCT services were implemented in Zambia between 2010 and 2015. Method: The study used routinely collected data from all pregnant women attending antenatal clinics (ANC) in SmartCare health facilities from January 2010 to December 2015. Categorical variables were summarized using proportions while continuous variables were summarized using medians and interquartile ranges. Results: There were 104,155 pregnant women who attended ANC services in SmartCare facilities during the study period. Of these, 9% tested HIV-positive during ANC visits whilst 43% had missing HIV test result records. Almost half (47%) of pregnant women who tested HIV-positive in their ANC visit were recorded in 2010. Among HIV-positive women, there was an increase in those already on ART at first ANC visit from 9% in 2011 to 74% in 2015. The overall mean time lag between starting ANC care and ART initiation was 7 months, over the 6 year period, but there were notable variations between provinces and years. Conclusion: The implementation of the WHO post 2010 PMTCT guidelines has resulted in an increase in the proportion of HIV-infected pregnant women attending ANC who are already on ART. However, the variability in HIV infection rates, missing data, and time to initiation of ART suggests there are some underlying health service or database issues which require attention.

Maternal Decision-Making and Uptake of Health Services for the Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission: A Secondary Analysis

Objectives We investigated whether a woman's role in household decision-making was associated with receipt of services to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT). Methods We conducted a secondary analysis of the PEARL study, an evaluation of PMTCT effectiveness in Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, South Africa, and Zambia. Our exposure of interest was the women's role (active vs. not active) in decision-making about her healthcare, large household purchases, children's schooling, and children's healthcare (i.e., four domains). Our primary outcomes were self-reported engagement at three steps in PMTCT: maternal antiretroviral use, infant antiretroviral prophylaxis, and infant HIV testing. Associations found to be significant in univariable logistic regression were included in separate multivariable models. Results From 2008 to 2009, 613 HIV-infected women were surveyed and provided information about their decision-making roles. Of these, 272 (44.4%) women reported antiretroviral use; 281 (45.9%) reported infant antiretroviral prophylaxis; and 194 (31.7%) reported infant HIV testing. Women who reported an active role were more likely to utilize infant HIV testing services, across all four measured domains of decision-making (adjusted odds ratios [AORs] 2.00-2.89 all p < .05). However, associations between decision-making and antiretroviral use-for both mother and infant-were generally not significant. An exception was active decision-making in a woman's own healthcare and reported maternal antiretroviral use (AOR 1.69, p < 0.05). Conclusions for Practice Associations between decision-making and PMTCT engagement were inconsistent and may be related to specific characteristics of individual health-seeking behaviors. Interventions seeking to improve PMTCT uptake should consider the type of health-seeking behavior to better optimize health services.

Protocol for the evaluation of the population-level impact of Zimbabwe's prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission program option B+: a community based serial cross-sectional study

Background

WHO recommends that HIV infected women receive antiretroviral therapy (ART) minimally during pregnancy and breastfeeding (“Option B”), or ideally throughout their lives regardless of clinical stage (“Option B+”) (Coovadia et al., Lancet 379:221–228, 2012). Although these recommendations were based on clinical trials demonstrating the efficacy of ART during pregnancy and breastfeeding, the population-level effectiveness of Option B+ is unknown, as are retention on ART beyond the immediate post-partum period, and the relative impact and cost-effectiveness of Option B+ compared to Option A (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 62:148–151, 2013; Ahmed et al., Curr Opin HIV AIDS 8:473–488, 2013). To address these issues, we conducted an impact evaluation of Zimbabwe’s prevention of mother to child transmission programme conducted between 2011 and 2018 using serial, community-based cross-sectional serosurveys, which spanned changes in WHO recommendations. Here we describe the rationale for the design and analysis.

Methods/design

Our method is to survey mother-infant pairs residing in the catchment areas of 157 health facilities randomly selected from 5 of 10 provinces in Zimbabwe. We collect questionnaires, blood samples from mothers and babies for HIV antibody and viral load testing, and verbal autopsies for deceased mothers/babies. Using this approach, we collected data from two previous time points: 2012 (pre-Option A standard of care), 2014 (post-Option A / pre-Option B+) and will collect a third round of data in 2017–18 (post Option B+ implementation) to monitor population-level trends in mother-to-child transmission of HIV (MTCT) and HIV-free infant survival. In addition, we will collect detailed information on facility level factors that may influence service delivery and costs.

Discussion

Although the efficacy of antiretroviral therapy (ART) during pregnancy and breastfeeding for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) has been well-documented in randomized trials, little evidence exists on the population-level impact and cost-effectiveness of Option B+ or the influence of the facility on implementation (Siegfried et al., Cochrane Libr 7:CD003510, 2017). This study will provide essential data on these gaps and will provide estimates on retention in care among Option B+ clients after the breastfeeding period.

Trial registration

NCT03388398 Retrospectively registered January 3, 2018.

Infant Human Immunodeficiency Virus-free Survival in the Era of Universal Antiretroviral Therapy for Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women: A Community-based Cohort Study From Rural Zambia

BACKGROUND

Lifelong antiretroviral therapy (ART) is now recommended for all human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected pregnant and breastfeeding women; however, few have described overall infant outcomes in this new era for the prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT).

METHODS

As part of an assessment of PMTCT program impact, we enrolled a prospective cohort study in 4 predominantly rural districts in Zambia. HIV-infected mothers and their newborns (≤30 days old) were recruited and followed at 6 weeks, 6 months and 12 months postpartum; infant specimens were tested via HIV DNA polymerase chain reaction. In Kaplan-Meier analyses, we estimated overall infant HIV-free survival and then stratified by district, community and maternal ART use. We investigated the relationship between community-level 12-month, self-reported maternal ART use and infant HIV-free survival via linear regression.

RESULTS

From June 2014 to November 2015, we enrolled 827 mother-infant pairs in 33 communities. At 12 months, small proportions of infants had died (2.8%), were HIV-infected (3.0%) or were lost to follow-up (4.3%). Overall, infant HIV-free survival was 99.0% [95% confidence interval (CI): 98.0%-99.5%] at 6 weeks, 97.5% (95% CI: 96.1%-98.4%) at 6 months and 96.3% (95% CI: 94.8%-97.4%) at 12 months. Women reporting ART use at enrollment had higher infant HIV-free survival than those who did not (97.4% vs. 89.0%, P = 0.01). Differences were noted at the district and site levels (P = 0.01). In community-level analysis, no relationship was observed between 12-month infant HIV-free survival and self-reported maternal ART use (P = 0.65).

CONCLUSION

Although encouraging, these findings highlight the need for rigorous monitoring and evaluation of PMTCT services at the population level.

Health risk behavior among perinatally HIV exposed uninfected adolescents: A systematic review

Background: Perinatally HIV exposed uninfected (PHEU) adolescents are an increasing sub-population, especially in high HIV epidemic settings. HIV exposure may have some lasting implications for adolescents’ development, however, longer term health outcomes such as health risk behavior (HRB) are so far not well understood in this adolescent sub-population. Methods: In this systematic review, we identify the prevalent forms, burden, and underlying risk factors for HRB of PHEU adolescents. We searched in PubMed, PsycINFO and Applied Social Sciences Index & Abstracts for peer reviewed empirical studies published between 1980 and August 2018 on HRB among PHEU adolescents aged 10 – 19 years. Results: Eleven eligible studies, all conducted in North America were identified and they showed that sexual risk behavior such as lifetime unprotected sex increased drastically especially in mid-adolescence. PHEU adolescents’ substance use (especially alcohol and marijuana) was high and increased over time. In a significant minority (10-18%) substance use disorder was screened. Some intra and interpersonal risk factors such as caregiver and PHEU adolescents’ mental health problems, age and HIV status were shared across the two forms of HRB. However, other risk factors like race, gender and experience of traumatic life events were behavior specific. Conclusion: Overall, there is need to conduct similar research in other settings especially those with high HIV burden where the PHEU adolescent sub-population is rising. Future research in this area could benefit from examining more forms of HRB and exploring the clustering of HRB among PHEU adolescents.

Retention and viral suppression of newly diagnosed and known HIV positive pregnant women on Option B+ in Western Kenya

Kenya introduced universal antiretroviral treatment (ART) for pregnant and breastfeeding women living with HIV (Option B+) in 2014. A retrospective study was conducted to review consecutive records for HIV positive pregnant women presenting for antenatal care (ANC) at five clinics in western Kenya. Known positive women (KP :HIV diagnosis prior to current pregnancy) were compared to newly positive (NP) women regarding virologic suppression and retention in care. Among 165 women included, 71 (43%) NP and 94 (57%) KP, NP were younger (24.5 years (SD 4.6) vs. 28.1 years (SD 5.6) compared to KP (p < .001). Almost all NP (97%) were initiated on Option B+ while over half of KP (59%) started ART for clinical/immunological criteria (p < .0001). KPs were more likely than NPs to have a VL performed following Kenyan guidelines (64% vs. 31%; p < .001). Among those tested, virologic suppression was high in both groups (92% KP vs. 100% NP; p = .31). More KPs (82%) vs. NPs (66%) remained active in care at 15-18 months of follow-up (p = .02). Women newly diagnosed with HIV during pregnancy show poorer uptake of VL testing and worse retention in care than those diagnosed prior to pregnancy.

Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV and HIV-Free Survival in Swaziland: A Community-Based Household Survey

In Swaziland, no data are available on the rates of HIV infection and HIV-free survival among children at the end of the breastfeeding period. We performed a national crosssectional community survey of children born 18-24 months prior to the study, in randomly selected constituencies in all 4 administrative regions of Swaziland, from April to June 2015. Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV and HIV-free survival rates were calculated for all HIV-exposed children. The overall HIV-free survival rate at 18-24 months was 95.9% (95% CI 94.1-97.2). The estimated proportion of HIV infected children among known HIV-exposed children was 3.6% (95% CI 2.4-5.2). Older maternal age, delivering at a health facility, and receiving antenatal antiretroviral drugs were independently associated with reduced risk for child infection or death. The Swaziland program for prevention of MTCT achieved high HIV-free survival (95.9%) and low MTCT (3.6%) rates at 18-24 months of age when Option A (infant prophylaxis) of the WHO 2010 guidelines was implemented.

"Well, not me, but other women do not register because..."- Barriers to seeking antenatal care in the context of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV among Zimbabwean women: a mixed-methods study

Background

While barriers to uptake of antenatal care (ANC) among pregnant women have been explored, much less is known about how integrating prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programmes within ANC services affects uptake. We explored barriers to uptake of integrated ANC services in a poor Zimbabwean community.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was conducted among post-natal women at Mbare Clinic, Harare, between September 2010 and February 2011. Collected data included participant characteristics and ANC uptake. Logistic regression was conducted to determine factors associated with ANC registration. In-depth interviews were held with the first 21 survey participants who either did not register or registered after twenty-four weeks gestation to explore barriers. Interviews were analysed thematically.

Results

Two hundred and ninety-nine participants (mean age 26.1 years) were surveyed. They came from ultra-poor households, with mean household income of US$181. Only 229 (76.6%) had registered for ANC, at a mean gestation of 29.5 weeks. In multivariable analysis, household income was positively associated with ANC registration, odds ratio (OR) for a $10-increase in household income 1.02 (95% confidence interval, CI, 1.0–1.04), as was education which interacted with having planned the pregnancy (OR for planned pregnancy with completed ordinary level education 3.27 (95%CI 1.55–6.70). Divorced women were less likely to register than married women, OR 0.20 (95%CI 0.07–0.58). In the qualitative study, barriers to either ANC or PMTCT services limited uptake of integrated services. Women understood the importance of integrated services for PMTCT purposes and theirs and the babies’ health and appeared unable to admit to barriers which they deemed “stupid/irresponsible”, namely fear of HIV testing and disrespectful treatment by nurses. They represented these commonly recurring barriers as challenges that “other women” faced. The major proffered personal barrier was unaffordability of user fees, which was sometimes compounded by unsupportive husbands who were the breadwinners.

Conclusion

Women who delayed/did not register were aware of the importance of ANC and PMTCT but were either unable to afford or afraid to register. Addressing the identified challenges will not only be important for integrated PMTCT/ANC services but will also provide a model for dealing with challenges as countries scale up ‘treat all’ approaches.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12884-018-1898-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

HIV status disclosure to male partners among rural Nigerian women along the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV cascade: a mixed methods study

Background

HIV status disclosure to male partners is important for optimal outcomes in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT). Depending on timing of HIV diagnosis or pregnancy status, readiness to disclose and disclosure rates may differ among HIV-positive women. We sought to determine rates, patterns, and experiences of disclosure among Nigerian women along the PMTCT cascade.

Methods

HIV-positive women in rural North-Central Nigeria were purposively recruited according to their PMTCT cascade status: pregnant-newly HIV-diagnosed, pregnant-in care, postpartum, and lost-to-follow-up (LTFU). Participants were surveyed to determine rates of disclosure to male partners and others; in-depth interviews evaluated disclosure patterns and experiences. Tests of association were applied to quantitative data. Qualitative data were manually analysed by theme and content using the constant comparative method in a Grounded Theory approach.

Results

We interviewed 100 women; 69% were 21–30 years old, and 86% were married. There were 25, 26, 28 and 21 women in the newly-diagnosed, in-care, postpartum, and LTFU groups, respectively. Approximately 81% of all participants reported disclosing to anyone; however, family members were typically disclosed to first. Ultimately, more women had disclosed to male partners (85%) than to family members (55%). Rates of disclosure to anyone varied between groups: newly-diagnosed and LTFU women had the lowest (56%) and highest (100%) rates, respectively (p = 0.001). However, family (p = 0.402) and male partner (p = 0.218) disclosure rates were similar between cascade groups. Across all cascade groups, fear of divorce and intimate partner violence deterred women from disclosing to male partners. However, participants reported that with assistance from healthcare workers, disclosure and post-disclosure experiences were mostly positive.

Conclusion

In our study cohort, although disclosure to male partners was overall higher, family members appeared more approachable for initial disclosure. Across cascade groups, male partners were ultimately disclosed to at rates > 75%, with no significant inter-group differences. Fear appears to be a major reason for non-disclosure or delayed disclosure by women to male partners. Augmentation of healthcare workers’ skills and involvement can mediate gender power differentials, minimize fear and shorten time to male partner disclosure among women living with HIV, regardless of their PMTCT cascade status.

Trial registration

Clinicaltrials.gov registration number NCT 01936753, September 3, 2013 (retrospectively registered).

Relationship between socioeconomic status and HIV infection: findings from a survey in the Free State and Western Cape Provinces of South Africa

BACKGROUND

Studies have shown a mixed association between socioeconomic status (SES) and prevalent HIV infection across and within settings in sub-Saharan Africa. In general, the relationship between years of formal education and HIV infection changed from a positive to a negative association with maturity of the HIV epidemic. Our objective was to determine the association between SES and HIV in women of reproductive age in the Free State (FSP) and Western Cape Provinces (WCP) of South Africa (SA).

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

SETTING

SA.

METHODS

We conducted secondary analysis on 1906 women of reproductive age from a 2007 to 2008 survey that evaluated effectiveness of Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission Programmes. SES was measured by household wealth quintiles, years of formal education and employment status. Our analysis principally used logistic regression for survey data.

RESULTS

There was a significant negative trend between prevalent HIV infection and wealth quintile in WCP (P<0.001) and FSP (P=0.025). In adjusted analysis, every additional year of formal education was associated with a 10% (adjusted OR (aOR) 0.90 (95% CI 0.85 to 0.96)) significant reduction in risk of prevalent HIV infection in WCP but no significant association was observed in FSP (aOR 0.99; 95% CI 0.89 to 1.11). There was no significant association between employment and prevalent HIV in each province: (aOR 1.54; 95% CI 0.84 to 2.84) in WCP and (aOR 0.96; 95% CI 0.71 to 1.30) in FSP.

CONCLUSION

The association between HIV infection and SES differed by province and by measure of SES and underscores the disproportionately higher burden of prevalent HIV infection among poorer and lowly educated women. Our findings suggest the need for re-evaluation of whether current HIV prevention efforts meet needs of the least educated (in WCP) and the poorest women (both WCP and FSP), and point to the need to investigate additional or tailored strategies for these women.

Women's decision-making and uptake of services to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission in Zambia

Women's empowerment is associated with engagement in some areas of healthcare, but its role in prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) services has not been previously considered. In this secondary analysis, we investigated the association of women's decision-making and uptake of health services for PMTCT. Using data from population-based household surveys, we included women who reported delivery in the 2-year period prior to the survey and were HIV-infected. We measured a woman's self-reported role in decision-making in her own healthcare, making of large purchases, schooling of children, and healthcare for children. For each domain, respondents were categorized as having an "active" or "no active" role. We investigated associations between decision-making and specific steps along the PMTCT cascade: uptake of maternal antiretroviral drugs, uptake of infant HIV prophylaxis, and infant HIV testing. We calculated unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios via logistic regression. From March to December 2011, 344 HIV-infected mothers were surveyed and 276 completed the relevant survey questions. Of these, 190 (69%) took antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy; 175 (64%) of their HIV-exposed infants received antiretroviral prophylaxis; and 160 (58%) had their infant tested for HIV. There was no association between decision-making and maternal or infant antiretroviral drug use. We observed a significant association between decision-making and infant HIV testing in univariate analyses (OR 1.56-1.85; p < 0.05); however, odds ratios for the decision-making indicators were no longer statistically significant predictors of infant HIV testing in multivariate analyses. In conclusion, women who reported an active role in decision-making trended toward a higher likelihood of uptake of infant testing in the PMTCT cascade. Larger studies are needed to evaluate the impact of empowerment initiatives on the PMTCT service utilization overall and infant testing in particular.

The Impact of Structured Mentor Mother Programs on Presentation for Early Infant Diagnosis Testing in Rural North-Central Nigeria: A Prospective Paired Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Early infant diagnosis (EID) by 2 months of age is an important prevention of mother-to-child cascade step that serves as an early postpartum indicator of program success. Uptake and timely presentation for infant HIV diagnosis are significant challenges in resource-limited settings. Few studies on maternal peer support (PS) have demonstrated impact on EID. The MoMent study evaluated the impact of structured PS on timely presentation for EID testing in rural North-Central Nigeria.

METHODS

A total of 497 HIV-positive pregnant women were consecutively recruited at 10 primary health care centers with structured, closely supervised Mentor Mother (MM) support, and 10 pair-matched primary health care centers with routine but ad hoc PS. EID was assessed among HIV-exposed infants delivered to recruited women, and was defined by presentation for DNA polymerase chain reaction testing between 35 and 62 days of life. A logistic regression model with generalized estimating equation to account for clustering was used to assess the effect of MMs on EID presentation.

RESULTS

Data from 408 live-born infants were available for analysis. Exposure to MM support was associated with higher odds of timely EID presentation among infants, compared with routine PS (adjusted odds ratios = 3.7, 95% confidence interval: 2.8 to 5.0).

CONCLUSIONS

Closely supervised, organized MM support significantly improved presentation for EID among HIV-exposed infants in a rural Nigerian setting. Structured PS can improve rates of timely EID presentation and potentially the uptake of EID testing in resource-limited settings.

Scale-up of Early Infant HIV Diagnosis and Improving Access to Pediatric HIV Care in Global Plan Countries: Past and Future Perspectives

Investment to scale-up early infant diagnosis (EID) of HIV has increased substantially in the last decade. This investment includes physical infrastructure, equipment, human resources, and specimen transportation systems as well as specialized mechanisms to deliver laboratory results to clinics. The Global Plan Towards the Elimination of New HIV Infections Among Children by 2015 and Keeping Their Mothers Alive, as well as related international initiatives to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV and treat children living with HIV have been important drivers of this scale-up by mobilizing resources, creating advocacy, developing normative recommendations, and providing direct technical support to countries through the global community of international stakeholders. As a result, the number of early infant diagnosis tests performed annually has increased 10-fold between 2005 and 2015, and many thousands of infants are now receiving life-saving antiretroviral therapy because of this improved access. Despite these efforts and many success stories, timely infant diagnosis remains a challenge in many Global Plan countries. The most recent data (from the end of 2015) suggest a large variation in access. Some countries report that almost 90% of HIV-exposed infants are being tested; others report that the level of access has stagnated at 30%. Still, just over half of all exposed infants in Global Plan countries receive a test in the first 2 months of life. We discuss the key factors that are responsible for this scale-up of diagnostic capacity, highlight some of the challenges that have hampered progress, and describe priorities for the future that can help maintain momentum to achieve true universal access to HIV testing for children.

Conditional Cash Transfers Improve Retention in PMTCT Services by Mitigating the Negative Effect of Not Having Money to Come to the Clinic

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the mechanisms by which a cash incentive intervention increases retention in prevention of mother-to-child transmission services.

METHODS

We used data from a randomized controlled trial in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Perceptual factors associated with loss to follow-up (LTFU) through 6 weeks postpartum were first identified. Then, binomial models were used to assess interactions between LTFU and identified factors, and the cash incentive intervention.

RESULTS

Participants were less likely to be LTFU if they perceived HIV as a "very serious" health problem for their baby vs. not [risk difference (RD), -0.13; 95% confidence interval (CI): -0.30 to 0.04], if they believed it would be "very likely" to pass HIV to their baby if they did not take any HIV drug vs. not (RD, -0.15; 95% CI: -0.32 to 0.02), and if they anticipated that not having money would make it difficult for them to come to the clinic vs. not (RD, 0.12; 95% CI: -0.07 to 0.30). The effect of each of the 3 factors on LTFU was antagonistic to that of receiving the cash incentive intervention. The excess risk due to interaction between the cash incentive intervention and the anticipated difficulty of "not having money" to come to the clinic was exactly equal to the effect of removing this perceived barrier (excess risk due to interaction, -0.12; 95% CI: -0.35 to 0.10).

CONCLUSIONS

Our analyses show that cash transfers improve retention in prevention of mother-to-child transmission services mainly by mitigating the negative effect of not having money to come to the clinic.

Contraceptive method and self-reported HIV status among women in Malawi

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to describe contraceptive methods used by women in Malawi and determine whether contraceptive use differed by self-reported HIV status. Effective contraception is a primary method of preventing mother-to-child transmission of HIV.

STUDY DESIGN

Analysis is based on 12,658 nonpregnant, sexually debuted women ages 15-49 years in the 2010 Malawi Demographic and Health Survey. Analysis was restricted to respondents with contraceptive need (i.e., fecund and did not want a child in the next 12 months) who reported their last HIV test result. We accounted for the two-stage cluster sampling design by applying cluster, stratum and sample weights. We assessed differences in contraceptive method use by HIV status with χ² tests and multivariable logistic regression.

RESULTS

A total of 893 (7.0%) of respondents reported being HIV positive. Use of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) was low and did not differ between HIV-positive (1.4%) and HIV-negative (1.9%) women [adjusted odds ratio (aOR)=0.7, 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.4-1.4]. HIV-positive women (15.6%) were less likely than HIV-negative women (30.4%) to use progestin-only injectable contraception (aOR, 0.7; 95% CI, 0.5-0.8). Prevalence of female sterilization was higher among HIV-positive women (17.9%) compared to HIV-negative women (9.2%; aOR=1.7; 95% CI, 1.2-2.3).

CONCLUSIONS

LARC use was low among adult women with contraceptive need in Malawi. HIV-positive women were less likely to report progestin-only injectable use but more likely to report having undergone female sterilization compared to their HIV-negative counterparts. Noncoercive interventions that provide highly effective methods of contraception to HIV-positive women with contraceptive need are valuable methods of vertical transmission prevention in Malawi.

IMPLICATIONS

Contraceptive use differed by self-reported HIV status among adult women with contraceptive need in Malawi. Female sterilization was significantly higher, and use of progestin-only injectables was significantly lower, among HIV-positive women compared to their HIV-negative counterparts. Use of long-acting reversible contraception was low among both HIV-positive and HIV-negative women.

Patient engagement in HIV care and treatment in Zambia, 2004-2014

OBJECTIVE

To describe engagement along the HIV continuum of care using a large network of clinics in Zambia.

METHODS

We employed a practical framework to describe retention along the HIV treatment cascade, using routinely collected clinical data available in resource-constrained settings. We included health facilities in four Zambian provinces with more than 300 enrolled patients over the age of 5 years. We described attrition at each step, from HIV enrolment to 720 days after ART initiation. The population was further stratified by year of enrolment to describe temporal trends in patient engagement.

RESULTS

From January 2004 to December 2014, 444 439 individuals over the age of 5 years sought HIV care at 75 eligible health facilities. Among those enrolled into HIV care, 82.1% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 79.4-84.5%) were fully assessed for ART eligibility within 180 days of enrolment and 63.6% (95% CI: 61.7-65.3) were found to be eligible for ART based on the HIV treatment guidelines at the time. Of those patients eligible for ART, 81.1% (95% CI: 79.5-82.7%) initiated ART within 180 days. Patient retention in ART programme was 81.2% (95% CI: 80.4-81.9%) at 90 days, 70.0% (95% CI: 68.7-71.2%) at 360 days and 61.6% (95% CI: 60.0-63.2%) at 720 days. We noted a steady decline in proportions assessed for ART eligibility and deemed eligible for ART in the time frame. Proportions that started ART and remained in care remained relatively consistent.

CONCLUSION

We describe a simple approach for assessing patient engagement after enrolment into HIV care. Using limited types of data routinely available, we demonstrate an important and replicable approach to monitoring programmes in resource-constrained settings.

Gaps in Adolescent Engagement in Antenatal Care and Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission Services in Kenya

BACKGROUND

Rates of pregnancy and HIV infection are high among adolescents. However, their engagement in prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) services is poorly characterized. We compared engagement in the PMTCT cascade between adult and adolescent mothers in Kenya.

METHODS

We conducted a nationally representative cross-sectional survey of mother-infant pairs attending 120 maternal child health clinics selected by probability proportionate to size sampling, with a secondary survey oversampling HIV-positive mothers in 30 clinics. Antenatal care (ANC) attendance, HIV testing, and antiretroviral (ARV) use were compared between adolescent (age ≤19 years) and adult mothers using χ tests and logistic regression.

RESULTS

Among 2521 mothers, 278 (12.8%) were adolescents. Adolescents were less likely than adults to be employed (16.5% vs. 37.9%), married (66.1% vs. 88.3%), have intended pregnancy (40.5% vs. 58.6%), or have disclosed their HIV status (77.5% vs. 90.7%) (P < 0.01 for all). Adolescents were less likely than adults to attend ≥4 ANC visits (35.2% vs. 45.6%, P = 0.002). This effect remained significant when adjusting for employment, household crowding, pregnancy intention, gravidity, and HIV status [adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval) = 0.54 (0.37 to 0.97), P = 0.001]. Among 2359 women without previous HIV testing, 96.1% received testing during pregnancy; testing levels did not differ between adolescents and adults. Among 288 HIV-positive women not on antiretroviral therapy before pregnancy, adolescents were less likely than adults to be on ARVs (65.0% vs. 85.8%, P = 0.01) or to have infants on ARVs (85.7% vs. 97.7%, P = 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescent mothers had poorer ANC attendance and uptake of ARVs for PMTCT. Targeted interventions are needed to improve retention of this vulnerable population in the PMTCT cascade.

Conditional cash transfers and uptake of and retention in prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission care: a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Novel strategies are needed to increase retention in and uptake of prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) services in sub-Saharan Africa. We aimed to determine whether small, increasing cash payments, which were conditional on attendance at scheduled clinic visits and receipt of proposed services can increase the proportions of HIV-infected pregnant women who accept available PMTCT services and remain in care.

METHODS

In this randomised controlled trial, we recruited newly diagnosed HIV-infected women, who were 32 or less weeks pregnant, from 89 antenatal care clinics in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, and randomly assigned (1:1) them to either the intervention group or the control group using computer-based randomisation with varying block sizes of four, six, and eight. The intervention group received compensation on the condition that they attended scheduled clinic visits and accepted offered PMTCT services (US$5, plus US$1 increment at every subsequent visit), whereas the control group received usual care. Outcomes assessed included retention in care at 6 weeks' post partum and uptake of PMTCT services, measured by attendance of all scheduled clinic visits and acceptance of proposed services up to 6 weeks' post partum. Analyses were by intention to treat. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.org, number NCT01838005.

FINDINGS

Between April 18, 2013, and Aug 30, 2014, 612 potential participants were identified, 545 were screened, and 433 were enrolled and randomly assigned; 217 to the control group and 216 to the intervention group. At 6 weeks' post partum, 174 participants in the intervention group (81%) and 157 in the control group (72%) were retained in care (risk ratio [RR] 1·11; 95% CI 1·00-1·24). 146 participants in the intervention group (68%) and 116 in the control group (54%) attended all clinic visits and accepted proposed services (RR 1·26; 95% CI 1·08-1·48). Results were similar after adjustment for marital status, age, and education.

INTERPRETATION

Among women with newly diagnosed HIV, small, incremental cash incentives resulted in increased retention along the PMTCT cascade and uptake of available services. The cost-effectiveness of these incentives and their effect on HIV-free survival warrant further investigation.

FUNDING

President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief and the National Institute of Health and Child Development.

Low Receipt and Uptake of Safer Conception Messages in Routine HIV Care: Findings From a Prospective Cohort of Women Living With HIV in South Africa

BACKGROUND

Safer conception strategies may be used by people living with HIV to reduce HIV transmission to partners resulting from condomless sex for conception. The extent to which people living with HIV receive safer conception messages and use risk reduction strategies is largely unknown.

METHODS

We use prospective data from a clinic-based cohort study in Johannesburg, South Africa. Women living with HIV (WLWH) aged 18-35 on antiretroviral therapy (n = 831) completed a baseline survey and ≥1 follow-up visits assessing fertility intentions and pregnancy incidence; an endline survey was administered 1 year postenrollment. Multivariate negative binomial regression models examined differences in the number of condomless sex acts by fertility intentions. Chi-squared statistics compared receipt of safer conception messages by fertility intentions and indicators of safer conception method use by partner HIV status.

RESULTS

The median baseline age of participants was 30.4 years and 25.3% were in serodiscordant partnerships. WLWH trying to conceive were over 3 times more likely to have condomless sex compared with those not trying to conceive (adjusted incidence rate ratio: 3.17, 95% confidence interval: 1.95 to 5.16). Receipt of specific safer conception messages was low, although women with positive fertility intentions were more likely to have received any fertility-related advice compared with those with unplanned pregnancies (76.3% vs. 49.1%, P < 0.001). Among WLWH trying to conceive (n = 111), use of timed unprotected intercourse was infrequent (17.1%) and lower in serodiscordant vs. concordant partnerships (8.5% vs. 26.9%, P = 0.010).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that clinic and patient-level interventions are needed to ensure that WLWH receive and use safer conception strategies.

Can Disease-Specific Funding Harm Health? in the Shadow of HIV/AIDS Service Expansion

This article examines the effect of introducing a new HIV/AIDS service-prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT)-on overall quality of prenatal and postnatal care. My results suggest that local PMTCT introduction in Zambia may have actually increased all-cause child mortality in the short term. There is some evidence that vaccinations may have declined in the short term in association with local PMTCT introduction, suggesting that the new service may have partly crowded out existing pediatric health services.

Implementation Research for the Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission in Sub-Saharan Africa: Existing Evidence, Current Gaps, and New Opportunities

Tremendous gains have been made in the prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) in sub-Saharan Africa. Ambitious goals for the "virtual elimination" of pediatric HIV appear increasingly feasible, driven by new scientific advances, forward-thinking health policy, and substantial donor investment. To fulfill this promise, however, rapid and effective implementation of evidence-based practices must be brought to scale across a diversity of settings. The discipline of implementation research can facilitate this translation from policy into practice; however, to date, its core principles and frameworks have been inconsistently applied in the field. We reviewed the recent developments in implementation research across each of the four "prongs" of a comprehensive PMTCT approach. While significant progress continues to be made, a greater emphasis on context, fidelity, and scalability-in the design and dissemination of study results-would greatly enhance current efforts and provide the necessary foundation for future evidence-based programs.

HIV Prevalence and Antenatal Care Attendance among Pregnant Women in a Large Home-Based HIV Counseling and Testing Program in Western Kenya

OBJECTIVE

To describe the uptake of and factors associated with HIV prevalence among pregnant women in a large-scale home-based HIV counseling and testing (HBCT) program in western Kenya.

METHODS

In 2007, the Academic Model Providing Access to Healthcare Program (AMPATH) initiated HBCT to all individuals aged ≥13 years and high-risk children <13 years. Included in this analysis were females aged 13-50 years, from 6 catchment areas (11/08-01/12). We used descriptive statistics and logistic regression to describe factors associated with HIV prevalence.

RESULTS

There were 119,678 women eligible for analysis; median age 25 (interquartile range, IQR: 18-34) years. Of these, 7,396 (6.2%) were pregnant at the time of HBCT; 4,599 (62%) had ever previously tested for HIV and 2,995 (40.5%) had not yet attended ANC for their current pregnancy. Testing uptake among pregnant women was high (97%). HBCT newly identified 241 (3.3%) pregnant HIV-positive women and overall HIV prevalence among all pregnant women was 6.9%. HIV prevalence among those who had attended ANC in this pregnancy was 5.4% compared to 9.0% among those who had not. Pregnant women were more likely to newly test HIV-positive in HBCT if they had not attended ANC in the current pregnancy (AOR: 6.85, 95% CI: 4.49-10.44).

CONCLUSIONS

Pregnant women who had never attended ANC were about 6 times more likely to newly test HIV-positive compared to those who had attended ANC, suggesting that the cascade of services for prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission should optimally begin at the home and village level if elimination of perinatal HIV transmission is to be achieved.

Towards elimination of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Ghana: an analysis of national programme data

BACKGROUND

Despite global scale up of interventions for Preventing Mother to child HIV Transmissions (PMTCT), there still remain high pediatric HIV infections, which result from unequal access in resource-constrained settings. Sub-Saharan Africa alone contributes more than 90 % of global Mother-to-Child Transmission (MTCT) burden. As part of efforts to address this, African countries (including Ghana) disproportionately contributing to MTCT burden were earmarked in 2009 for rapid PMTCT interventions scale-up within their primary care system for maternal and child health. In this study, we reviewed records in Ghana, on ANC registrants eligible for PMTCT services to describe regional disparities and national trends in key PMTCT indicators. We also assessed distribution of missed opportunities for testing pregnant women and treating those who are HIV positive across the country. Implications for scaling up HIV-related maternal and child health services to ensure equitable access and eliminate mother-to-child transmissions by 2015 are also discussed.

METHODS

Data for this review is National AIDS/STI Control Programme (NACP) regional disaggregated records on registered antenatal clinic (ANC) attendees across the country, who are also eligible to receive PMTCT services. These records cover a period of 3 years (2011-2013). Number of ANC registrants, utilization of HIV Testing and Counseling among ANC registrants, number of HIV positive pregnant women, and number of HIV positive pregnant women initiated on ARVs were extracted. Trends were examined by comparing these indicators over time (2011-2013) and across the ten administrative regions. Descriptive statistics were conducted on the dataset and presented in simple frequencies, proportions and percentages. These are used to determine gaps in utilization of PMTCT services. All analyses were conducted using Microsoft Excel 2010 version.

RESULTS

Although there was a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women, untested ANC registrants increased from 17 % in 2011 to 25 % in 2013. There were varying levels of missed opportunities for testing across the ten regions, which led to a total of 487,725 untested ANC clients during the period under review. In 2013, Greater Accra (31 %), Northern (27 %) and Volta (48 %) regions recorded high percentages of untested ANC clients. Overall, HIV positive pregnant women initiated onto ARVs remarkably increased from 57% (2011) to 82 % (2013), yet about a third (33 %) of them in the Volta and Northern regions did not receive ARVs in 2013.

CONCLUSIONS

Missed opportunities to test pregnant women for HIV and also initiate those who are positive on ARVs across all the regions pose challenges to the quest to eliminate mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Ghana. For some regions these missed opportunities mimic previously observed gaps in continuous use of primary care for maternal and child health in those areas. Increased national and regional efforts aimed at improving maternal and child healthcare delivery, as well as HIV-related care, is paramount for ensuring equitable access across the country.

[Early diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus-1 in infants: The prevention of mother-to-child transmission program in Equatorial Guinea]

BACKGROUND

Great efforts have been made in the last few years in order to implement the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) program in Equatorial Guinea (GQ). The aim of this study was to evaluate the rates of mother-to-child HIV transmission based on an HIV early infant diagnosis (EID) program.

METHODS

A prospective observational study was performed in the Regional Hospital of Bata and Primary Health Care Centre Maria Rafols, Bata, GQ. Epidemiological, clinical, and microbiological characteristics of HIV-1-infected mothers and their exposed infants were recorded. Dried blood spots (DBS) for HIV-1 EID were collected from November 2012 to December 2013. HIV-1 genome was detected using Siemens VERSANT HIV-1 RNA 1.0 kPCR assay.

RESULTS

Sixty nine pairs of women and infants were included. Sixty women (88.2%) had WHO clinical stage 1. Forty seven women (69.2%) were on antiretroviral treatment during pregnancy. Forty five infants (66.1%) received postnatal antiretroviral prophylaxis. Age at first DBS analysis was 2.4 months (IQR 1.2-4.9). One infant died before a HIV-1 diagnosis could be ruled out. Two infants were HIV-1 infected and started HAART before any symptoms were observed. The rate of HIV-1 transmission observed was 2.9% (95%CI 0.2-10.5).

CONCLUSIONS

The PMTCT rate was evaluated for the first time in GQ based on EID. EID is the key for early initiation of antiretroviral therapy and to reduce the mortality associated with HIV infection.

Implementation and Operational Research: Decentralization Does Not Assure Optimal Delivery of PMTCT and HIV-Exposed Infant Services in a Low Prevalence Setting

BACKGROUND

The consequences of decentralizing prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission and HIV-exposed infant services to antenatal care (ANC)/labor and delivery (L&D) sites from dedicated HIV care and treatment (C&T) centers remain unknown, particularly in low prevalence settings.

METHODS

In a cohort of mother-infant pairs, we compared delivery of routine services at ANC/L&D and C&T facilities in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo from 2010-2013, using methods accounting for competing risks (eg, death). Women could opt to receive interventions at 90 decentralized ANC/L&D sites, or 2 affiliated C&T centers. Additionally, we assessed decentralization's population-level impacts by comparing proportions of women and infants receiving interventions before (2009-2010) and after (2011-2013) decentralization.

RESULTS

Among newly HIV-diagnosed women (N = 1482), the 14-week cumulative incidence of receiving the package of CD4 testing and zidovudine or antiretroviral therapy was less at ANC/L&D [66%; 95% confidence interval (CI): 63% to 69%] than at C&T (88%; 95% CI: 83% to 92%) sites (subdistribution hazard ratio, 0.62; 95% CI: 0.55 to 0.69). Delivery of cotrimoxazole and DNA polymerase chain reaction testing to HIV-exposed infants (N = 1182) was inferior at ANC/L&D sites (subdistribution hazard ratio, 0.84; 95% CI: 0.76 to 0.92); the 10-month cumulative incidence of the package at ANC/L&D sites was 89% (95% CI: 82% to 93%) versus 97% (95% CI: 93% to 99%) at C&T centers. Receipt of the pregnancy (20% of 1518, to 64% of 1405) and infant (16%-31%) packages improved post decentralization.

CONCLUSIONS

Services were delivered less efficiently at ANC/L&D sites than C&T centers. Although access improved with decentralization, its potential cannot be realized without sufficient and sustained support.

Implementation and Operational Research: Reconstructing the PMTCT Cascade Using Cross-sectional Household Survey Data: The PEARL Study

BACKGROUND

Given the ambitious targets to reduce pediatric AIDS worldwide, ongoing assessment of programs to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) is critical. The concept of a "PMTCT cascade" has been used widely to identify bottlenecks in program implementation; however, most efforts to reconstruct the cascade have relied on facility-based approaches that may limit external validity.

METHODS

We analyzed data from the PEARL household survey, which measured PMTCT effectiveness in 26 communities across Zambia, South Africa, Cote d'Ivoire, and Cameroon. We recruited women who reported a delivery in the past 2 years. Among mothers confirmed to be HIV infected at the time of survey, we reconstructed the PMTCT cascade with self-reported participant information. We also analyzed data about the child's vital status; for those still alive, HIV testing was performed by DNA polymerase chain reaction testing.

RESULTS

Of the 976 eligible women, only 355 (36%) completed every step of the PMTCT cascade. Among the 621 mother-child pairs who did not, 22 (4%) reported never seeking antenatal care, 103 (17%) were not tested for HIV during pregnancy, 395 (64%) reported testing but never received their HIV-positive result, 48 (8%) did not receive maternal antiretroviral prophylaxis, and 53 (9%) did not receive infant antiretroviral prophylaxis. The lowest prevalence of infant HIV infection or death was observed in those completing the cascade (10%, 95% confidence interval: 7% to 12%).

CONCLUSIONS

Future efforts to measure population PMTCT impact should incorporate dimensions explored in the PEARL study-including HIV testing of HIV-exposed children in household surveys-to better understand program effectiveness.

Tracing defaulters in HIV prevention of mother-to-child transmission programmes through community health workers: results from a rural setting in Zimbabwe

Introduction

High retention in care is paramount to reduce vertical human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections in prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programmes but remains low in many sub-Saharan African countries. We aimed to assess the effects of community health worker–based defaulter tracing (CHW-DT) on retention in care and mother-to-child HIV transmission, an innovative approach that has not been evaluated to date.

Methods

We analyzed patient records of 1878 HIV-positive pregnant women and their newborns in a rural PMTCT programme in the Tsholotsho district of Zimbabwe between 2010 and 2013 in a retrospective cohort study. Using binomial regression, we compared vertical HIV transmission rates at six weeks post-partum, and retention rates during the perinatal PMTCT period (at delivery, nevirapine [NVP] initiation at three days post-partum, cotrimoxazole (CTX) initiation at six weeks post-partum, and HIV testing at six weeks post-partum) before and after the introduction of CHW-DT in the project.

Results

Median maternal age was 27 years (inter-quartile range [IQR] 23 to 32) and median CD4 count was 394 cells/µL³ (IQR 257 to 563). The covariate-adjusted rate ratio (aRR) for perinatal HIV transmission was 0.72 (95% confidence intervals [95% CI] 0.27 to 1.96, p=0.504), comparing patient outcomes after and before the intervention. Among fully retained patients, 11 (1.9%) newborns tested HIV positive. ARRs for retention in care were 1.01 (95% CI 0.96 to 1.06, p=0.730) at delivery; 1.35 (95% CI 1.28 to 1.42, p<0.001) at NVP initiation; 1.78 (95% CI 1.58 to 2.01, p<0.001) at CTX initiation; and 2.54 (95% CI 2.20 to 2.93, p<0.001) at infant HIV testing. Cumulative retention after and before the intervention was 496 (85.7%) and 1083 (87.3%) until delivery; 480 (82.9%) and 1005 (81.0%) until NVP initiation; 303 (52.3%) and 517 (41.7%) until CTX initiation; 272 (47.0%) and 427 (34.4%) until infant HIV testing; and 172 (29.7%) and 405 (32.6%) until HIV test result collection.

Conclusions

The CHW-DT intervention did not reduce perinatal HIV transmission significantly. Retention improved moderately during the post-natal period, but cumulative retention decreased rapidly even after the intervention. We showed that transmission in resource-limited settings can be as low as in resource-rich countries if patients are fully retained in care. This requires structural changes to the regular PMTCT services, in which community health workers can, at best, play a complementary role.

Implementation and Operational Research: Effects of Antenatal Care and HIV Treatment Integration on Elements of the PMTCT Cascade: Results From the SHAIP Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial in Kenya

BACKGROUND

Integrating antenatal care (ANC) and HIV care may improve uptake and retention in services along the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) cascade. This study aimed to determine whether integration of HIV services into ANC settings improves PMTCT service utilization outcomes.

METHODS

ANC clinics in rural Kenya were randomized to integrated (6 clinics, 569 women) or nonintegrated (6 clinics, 603 women) services. Intervention clinics provided all HIV services, including highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), whereas control clinics provided PMTCT services but referred women to HIV care clinics within the same facility. PMTCT utilization outcomes among HIV-infected women (maternal HIV care enrollment, HAART initiation, and 3-month infant HIV testing uptake) were compared using generalized estimating equations and Cox regression.

RESULTS

HIV care enrollment was higher in intervention compared with control clinics [69% versus 36%; odds ratio = 3.94, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.14 to 13.63]. Median time to enrollment was significantly shorter among intervention arm women (0 versus 8 days, hazard ratio = 2.20, 95% CI: 1.62 to 3.01). Eligible women in the intervention arm were more likely to initiate HAART (40% versus 17%; odds ratio = 3.22, 95% CI: 1.81 to 5.72). Infant testing was more common in the intervention arm (25% versus 18%), however, not statistically different. No significant differences were detected in postnatal service uptake or maternal retention.

CONCLUSIONS

Service integration increased maternal HIV care enrollment and HAART uptake. However, PMTCT utilization outcomes were still suboptimal, and postnatal service utilization remained poor in both study arms. Further improvements in the PMTCT cascade will require additional research and interventions.

Evaluating the Impact of Zimbabwe's Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission Program: Population-Level Estimates of HIV-Free Infant Survival Pre-Option A

Objective

We estimated HIV-free infant survival and mother-to-child HIV transmission (MTCT) rates in Zimbabwe, some of the first community-based estimates from a UNAIDS priority country.

Methods

In 2012 we surveyed mother-infant pairs residing in the catchment areas of 157 health facilities randomly selected from 5 of 10 provinces in Zimbabwe. Enrolled infants were born 9–18 months before the survey. We collected questionnaires, blood samples for HIV testing, and verbal autopsies for deceased mothers/infants. Estimates were assessed among i) all HIV-exposed infants, as part of an impact evaluation of Option A of the 2010 WHO guidelines (rolled out in Zimbabwe in 2011), and ii) the subgroup of infants unexposed to Option A. We compared province-level MTCT rates measured among women in the community with MTCT rates measured using program monitoring data from facilities serving those communities.

Findings

Among 8568 women with known HIV serostatus, 1107 (12.9%) were HIV-infected. Among all HIV-exposed infants, HIV-free infant survival was 90.9% (95% confidence interval (CI): 88.7–92.7) and MTCT was 8.8% (95% CI: 6.9–11.1). Sixty-six percent of HIV-exposed infants were still breastfeeding. Among the 762 infants born before Option A was implemented, 90.5% (95% CI: 88.1–92.5) were alive and HIV-uninfected at 9–18 months of age, and 9.1% (95%CI: 7.1–11.7) were HIV-infected. In four provinces, the community-based MTCT rate was higher than the facility-based MTCT rate. In Harare, the community and facility-based rates were 6.0% and 9.1%, respectively.

Conclusion

By 2012 Zimbabwe had made substantial progress towards the elimination of MTCT. Our HIV-free infant survival and MTCT estimates capture HIV transmissions during pregnancy, delivery and breastfeeding regardless of whether or not mothers accessed health services. These estimates also provide a baseline against which to measure the impact of Option A guidelines (and subsequently Option B+).

Barriers to initiating antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy: a qualitative study of women attending services in Cape Town, South Africa

Despite the rapid expansion of antiretroviral therapy (ART) programmes, uptake of ART in pregnancy remains suboptimal. Little is known about the barriers to initiating lifelong ART in pregnancy and the challenges to postpartum retention in HIV care, particularly in sub-Saharan African contexts with a high burden of disease. In this qualitative study, 28 HIV-positive pregnant or postpartum women, who either had initiated ART or were eligible for ART, and 21 service providers were interviewed in Cape Town, South Africa, to investigate these barriers. Prevention of vertical transmission of HIV was often the primary motivation for starting treatment. Key challenges to ART initiation included late first presentation, denial of an HIV diagnosis, fear of disclosure, and treatment side-effects. The women expressed difficulties in accepting a lifelong commitment to treatment for maternal health benefit. Pregnant women who require ART face a triple burden of transitioning into pregnancy, accepting the HIV diagnosis, and recognising the urgent requirement to start lifelong ART before delivery. Focused interventions are required to address the psychosocial barriers to ART uptake and the linkages to care for pregnant HIV-positive women.

Implementation of the national programme for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV: a rapid assessment in Cacadu district, South Africa

To conduct a rapid assessment of the prevention-of-mother-to-child-transmission-of-HIV (PMTCT) programme in two of the three local service areas in Cacadu district, Eastern Cape province, South Africa, we designed an exploratory study using a mixed-methods approach. Quantitative and qualitative data on PMTCT programme implementation were collected in 2008 through a structured assessment at the 44 health facilities implementing the programme in the province. This included in-depth interviews with 11 clinic supervisors, 31 clinic programme coordinators, and 8 hospital/maternity staff members in order to examine their perceived problems and suggestions regarding PMTCT programme implementation; an assessment of the clinic registers and recording systems; a meeting with stakeholders; and one feedback meeting with clinic managers, sub-district management and other stakeholders in regard to the results of the rapid assessment. Overall, most of the national criteria for PMTCT programme implementation were fulfilled across the health facilities. However, shortcomings were found relating to health policy, health services delivery and clients' health-seeking behaviour. The findings show the need for a well-functioning health system with adequate and trained staff, a reduced staff workload, proper case recording, an improved patient follow-up system, better support for staff, the empowerment of PMTCT clients, strong leadership, and coordination and collaboration between partners.

HIV-free survival according to the early infant-feeding practices; a retrospective study in an anti-retroviral therapy programme in Makurdi, Nigeria

Background

In Nigeria, reports of the outcomes of prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) interventions had been limited to the MTCT rates of HIV, with no information on HIV-free survival (HFS) in the HIV-exposed infants over time.

Methods

A retrospective study between June 2008 and December 2011 at the Federal Medical Centre, Makurdi, Nigeria comparing HFS rates at 3 and 18 months according to the infant feeding pattern at the 6th week of life. HFS was assessed by Kaplan-Meier analysis and association of maternal and infant variables and risk of HIV acquisition or death was tested in a Cox regression analysis.

Results

801 HIV uninfected infants at 6 weeks of life were studied in accordance with their reported cumulative feeding pattern. This includes 196 infants on exclusive breast feeding (EBF); 544 on exclusive breast milk substitute (EBMS) feeding and 61 on mixed feeding (MF). The overall HFS was 94.4% at 3 months and this declined significantly to 87.1% at the 18 months of age (p-value = 0.000). The infants on MF had the lowest HFS rates of 75.7% at 3 months and 69.8% at 18 months. The HFS rate for infants on EBF was 97.4% at 3 months and 92.5% at 18 month whilst infants on EBMS had HFS of 99.1% at 3 months and 86.2% at 18 months. A higher and significant drop off in HFS at the two time points occurred between infants on EBMS (12.9%) compared to infants on EBF (4.9%), p-value of 0.002, but not between infants on MF (5.9%) and EBMS, p-value of 0.114 and those on MF and EBF, p-value of 0.758. In Cox regression multivariate analyses; MF, gestational age of ˂ 37 weeks, and a high pre-delivery maternal viral load were consistently associated with HIV infection or death at 3 months and 18 months (p ˂0.05).

Conclusion

For a better HFS in our setting; MF must be avoided, efforts to deliver babies at term in mothers with reduced viral load are advocated and EBF must be promoted as the safest and the most feasible mode of infant-feeding.

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in rural Uganda: modelling effectiveness and impact of scaling-up PMTCT services

Background

The reported coverage of any antiretroviral (ARV) prophylaxis for prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) has increased in sub-Saharan Africa in recent years, but was still only 60% in 2010. However, the coverage estimate is subject to overestimations since it only considers enrolment and not completion of the PMTCT programme. The PMTCT programme is complex as it builds on a cascade of sequential interventions that should take place to reduce mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV: starting with antenatal care (ANC), HIV testing, and ARVs for the woman and the baby.

Objective

The objective was to estimate the number of children infected with HIV in a district population, using empirical data on uptake of PMTCT components combined with data on MTCT rates.

Design

This study is based on a population-based cohort of pregnant women recruited in the Iganga-Mayuge Health and Demographic Surveillance Site in rural Uganda 2008–2010. We later modelled different scenarios assuming increased uptake of specific PMTCT components to estimate the impact on MTCT for each scenario.

Results

In this setting, HIV infections in children could be reduced by 28% by increasing HIV testing capacity at health facilities to ensure 100% testing among women seeking ANC. Providing ART to all women who received ARV prophylaxis would give an 18% MTCT reduction.

Conclusions

Our results highlight the urgency in scaling-up universal access to HIV testing at all ANC facilities, and the potential gains of early enrolment of all pregnant women on antiretroviral treatment for PMTCT. Further, to determine the effectiveness of PMTCT programmes in different settings, it is crucial to analyse at what stages of the PMTCT cascade that dropouts occur to target interventions accordingly.

Male involvement for the prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission: A brief review of initiatives in East, West, and Central Africa

Current trends in HIV/AIDS research in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) highlight socially and culturally sensitive interventions that mobilize community members and resources for universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, and care services. These factors are particularly important when addressing the complex social and cultural nature of implementing services for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT). Across the globe approximately 34 % fewer children were infected with HIV through the perinatal or breastfeeding route in 2011 (est. 330,000) than in 2001 (est. 500,000), but ongoing mother-to-child HIV transmission is concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa, where fully 90 % of 2011 cases are estimated to have occurred. Recent literature suggests that PMTCT in Africa is optimized when interventions engage and empower community members, including male partners, to support program implementation and confront the social, cultural and economic barriers that facilitate continued vertical transmission of HIV. In resource-limited settings the feasibility and sustainability of PMTCT programs require innovative approaches to strengthening male engagement by leveraging lessons learned from successful initiatives in SSA. This review presents an overview of studies assessing barriers and facilitators of male participation in PMTCT and new interventions designed to increase male engagement in East, West, and Central Africa from 2000-2013, and examines the inclusion of men in PMTCT programs through the lens of community and facility activities that promote the engagement and involvement of both men and women in transformative PMTCT initiatives.

First population-level effectiveness evaluation of a national programme to prevent HIV transmission from mother to child, South Africa

Background

There is a paucity of data on the national population-level effectiveness of preventing mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programmes in high-HIV-prevalence, resource-limited settings. We assessed national PMTCT impact in South Africa (SA), 2010.

Methods

A facility-based survey was conducted using a stratified multistage, cluster sampling design. A nationally representative sample of 10 178 infants aged 4–8 weeks was recruited from 565 clinics. Data collection included caregiver interviews, record reviews and infant dried blood spots to identify HIV-exposed infants (HEI) and HIV-infected infants. During analysis, self-reported antiretroviral (ARV) use was categorised: 1a: triple ARV treatment; 1b: azidothymidine >10 weeks; 2a: azidothymidine ≤10 weeks; 2b: incomplete ARV prophylaxis; 3a: no antenatal ARV and 3b: missing ARV information. Findings were adjusted for non-response, survey design and weighted for live-birth distributions.

Results

Nationally, 32% of live infants were HEI; early mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) was 3.5% (95% CI 2.9% to 4.1%). In total 29.4% HEI were born to mothers on triple ARV treatment (category 1a) 55.6% on prophylaxis (1b, 2a, 2b), 9.5% received no antenatal ARV (3a) and 5.5% had missing ARV information (3b). Controlling for other factors groups, 1b and 2a had similar MTCT to 1a (Ref; adjusted OR (AOR) for 1b, 0.98, 0.52 to 1.83; and 2a, 1.31, 0.69 to 2.48). MTCT was higher in group 2b (AOR 3.68, 1.69 to 7.97). Within group 3a, early MTCT was highest among breastfeeding mothers 11.50% (4.67% to 18.33%) for exclusive breast feeding, 11.90% (7.45% to 16.35%) for mixed breast feeding, and 3.45% (0.53% to 6.35%) for no breast feeding). Antiretroviral therapy or >10 weeks prophylaxis negated this difference (MTCT 3.94%, 1.98% to 5.90%; 2.07%, 0.55% to 3.60% and 2.11%, 1.28% to 2.95%, respectively).

Conclusions

SA, a high-HIV-prevalence middle income country achieved <5% MTCT by 4–8 weeks post partum. The long-term impact on PMTCT on HIV-free survival needs urgent assessment.

Community-based evaluation of PMTCT uptake in Nyanza Province, Kenya

Introduction

Facility-based assessments of prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) programs may overestimate population coverage. There are few community-based studies that evaluate PMTCT coverage and uptake.

Methods

During 2011, a cross-sectional community survey among women who gave birth in the prior year was performed using the KEMRI-CDC Health and Demographic Surveillance System in Western Kenya. A random sample (n = 405) and a sample of women known to be HIV-positive through previous home-based testing (n = 247) were enrolled. Rates and correlates of uptake of antenatal care (ANC), HIV-testing, and antiretrovirals (ARVs) were determined.

Results

Among 405 women in the random sample, 379 (94%) reported accessing ANC, most of whom (87%) were HIV tested. Uptake of HIV testing was associated with employment, higher socioeconomic status, and partner HIV testing. Among 247 known HIV-positive women, 173 (70%) self-disclosed their HIV status. Among 216 self-reported HIV-positive women (including 43 from the random sample), 82% took PMTCT ARVs, with 54% completing the full antenatal, peripartum, and postpartum course. Maternal ARV use was associated with more ANC visits and having an HIV tested partner. ARV use during delivery was lowest (62%) and associated with facility delivery. Eighty percent of HIV infected women reported having their infant HIV tested, 11% of whom reported their child was HIV infected, 76% uninfected, 6% declined to say, 7% did not recall; 79% of infected children were reportedly receiving HIV care and treatment.

Conclusions

Community-based assessments provide data that complements clinic-based PMTCT evaluations. In this survey, antenatal HIV test uptake was high; most HIV infected women received ARVs, though many women did not self-disclose HIV status to field team. Community-driven strategies that encourage early ANC, partner involvement, and skilled delivery, and provide PMTCT education, may facilitate further reductions in vertical transmission.

Economic and social factors are some of the most common barriers preventing women from accessing maternal and newborn child health (MNCH) and prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) services: a literature review

Support to health programming has increasingly placed an emphasis on health systems strengthening. Integration of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and maternal and newborn child health (MNCH) services has been one of the areas where there has been a shift from a siloed to a more integrated approach. The scale-up of anti-retroviral therapy has made services increasingly available while also bringing them closer to those in need. However, addressing supply side issues around the availability and quality of care at the health centre level alone cannot guarantee better results without a more explicit focus on access issues. Access to PMTCT care and treatment services is affected by a number of barriers which influence decisions of women to seek care. This paper reviews published qualitative and quantitative studies that look at demand side barriers to PMTCT services and proposes a categorisation of these barriers. It notes that access to PMTCT services as well as eventual uptake and retention in PMTCT care starts with access to MNCH in general. While poverty often prevents women, regardless of HIV status, from accessing MNCH services, women living with HIV who are in need of PMTCT services face an additional set of PMTCT barriers. This review proposes four categories of barriers to accessing PMTCT: social norms and knowledge, socioeconomic status, physiological status and psychological conditions. Social norms and knowledge and socioeconomic status stand out. Transport is the most frequently mentioned socioeconomic barrier. With regard to social norms and knowledge, non-disclosure, stigma and partner relations are the most commonly cited barriers. Some studies also cite physiological barriers. Barriers related to social norms and knowledge, socioeconomic status and physiology can all be affected by the mental and psychological state of the individual to create a psychological barrier to access. Increased coverage and uptake of PMTCT services can be achieved if policy makers and programme managers better understand the barriers that may prevent their potential target population from taking up and adhering to their services. The categorisation presented in this review provides further insight into the type of barriers that may exist .

Improving PMTCT uptake in rural South Africa

INTRODUCTION

Despite the widespread availability of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programs, many women in sub-Saharan Africa do not participate in PMTCT. This pilot study aimed to utilize partner participation in an intervention to support PMTCT uptake.

METHODS

Couples (n ¼ 239) were randomized to receive either a comprehensive couples-based PMTCT intervention or the standard of care.

RESULTS

Compared to the standard of care, participants receiving the intervention increased HIV- and PMTCT-related knowledge (F1,474 ¼ 13.94, p ¼ .004) and uptake of PMTCT, as defined by infant medication dosing (74% vs. 46%, w2 ¼ 4.69, p ¼ .03).

DISCUSSION

Results indicate that increasing male attendance at antenatal clinic visits maybe "necessary but not sufficient" to increase PMTCT uptake. Increasing HIV knowledge of both partners and encouraging active male participation in the PMTCT process through psychoeducational interventions may be a strategy to increase the uptake of PMTCT in South Africa.

Temporal changes in the outcomes of HIV-exposed infants in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo during a period of rapidly evolving guidelines for care (2007-2013)

OBJECTIVE

Guidelines for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV have developed rapidly, yet little is known about how outcomes of HIV-exposed infants have changed over time. We describe HIV-exposed infant outcomes in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, between 2007 and 2013.

DESIGN

Cohort study of mother-infant pairs enrolled in family-centered comprehensive HIV care.

METHODS

Accounting for competing risks, we estimated the cumulative incidences of early infant diagnosis, HIV transmission, death, loss to follow-up, and combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) initiation for infants enrolled in three periods (2007-2008, 2009-2010, and 2011-2012).

RESULTS

1707 HIV-exposed infants enrolled at a median age of 2.6 weeks. Among infants whose mothers had recently enrolled into HIV care (N = 1411), access to EID by age two months increased from 28% (95% confidence limits [CL]: 24,34%) among infants enrolled in 2007-2008 to 63% (95% CL: 59,68%) among infants enrolled in 2011-2012 (Gray's p-value <0.01). The 18-month cumulative incidence of HIV declined from 16% (95% CL: 11,22%) for infants enrolled in 2007-2008 to 11% (95% CL: 8,16%) for infants enrolled in 2011-2012 (Gray's p-value = 0.19). The 18-month cumulative incidence of death also declined, from 8% (95% CL: 5,12%) to 3% (95% CL: 2,5%) (Gray's p-value = 0.02). LTFU did not improve, with 18-month cumulative incidences of 19% (95% CL: 15,23%) for infants enrolled in 2007-2008 and 22% (95% CL: 18,26%) for infants enrolled in 2011-2012 (Gray's p-value = 0.06). Among HIV-infected infants, the 24-month cumulative incidence of cART increased from 61% (95% CL: 43,75%) to 97% (95% CL: 82,100%) (Gray's p-value <0.01); the median age at cART decreased from 17.9 to 9.3 months. Outcomes were better for infants whose mothers enrolled before pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed encouraging improvements, but continued efforts are needed.

Evaluating the impact of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Malawi through immunization clinic-based surveillance

Background

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) programs can greatly reduce the vertical transmission rate (VTR) of HIV, and Malawi is expanding PMTCT access by offering HIV-infected pregnant women life-long antiretroviral therapy (Option B+). There is currently no empirical data on the effectiveness of Malawian PMTCT programs. This study describes a surveillance approach to obtain population-based estimates of the VTR of infants <3 months of age in Malawi immediately after the adoption of Option B+.

Methods and Findings

A sample of caregivers and infants <3 months from 53 randomly chosen immunization clinics in 4 districts were enrolled. Infant dried blood spot (DBS) samples were tested for HIV exposure with an antibody test to determine maternal seropositivity. Positive samples were further tested using DNA PCR to determine infant infection status and VTR. Caregivers were surveyed about maternal receipt of PMTCT services. Of the 5,068 DBS samples, 764 were ELISA positive indicating 15.1% (14.1–16.1%) of mothers were HIV-infected and passed antibodies to their infant. Sixty-five of the ELISA-positive samples tested positive by DNA PCR, indicating a vertical transmission rate of 8.5% (6.6–10.7%). Survey data indicates 64.8% of HIV-infected mothers and 46.9% of HIV-exposed infants received some form of antiretroviral prophylaxis. Results do not include the entire breastfeeding period which extends to almost 2 years in Malawi.

Conclusions

The observed VTR was lower than expected given earlier modeled estimates, suggesting that Malawi’s PMTCT program has been successful at averting perinatal HIV transmission. Challenges to full implementation of PMTCT remain, particularly around low reported antiretroviral prophylaxis. This approach is a useful surveillance tool to assess changes in PMTCT effectiveness as Option B+ is scaled-up, and can be expanded to track programming effectiveness for young infants over time in Malawi and elsewhere.