Post-Effort Changes in Activity of Traditional Diagnostic Enzymatic Markers in Football Players' Blood

An evaluation of inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers as determinants of peripheral arterial disease in those with diabetes mellitus

The most serious long-term effects of diabetes is peripheral artery disease (PAD) which increases the chance of developing diabetic foot ulcers, gangrene and even lower limb amputation. The clinical manifestations of PAD which are typically not revealed until symptoms like intermittent claudication, rest pain and ischemic gangrene develop, are not present in majority of diabetes mellitus patients with PAD due to diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Therefore, current study is aimed to evaluate the inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers with their correlation to biomarkers that can help for in-time diagnosis and efficient prognosis of developing diabetes-associated PAD. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to evaluate the interlukin-6, interlukin-8, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM) and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM) in PAD with diabetes group, diabetic group and healthy individual group while biomarkers were measured by kit method. It was observed that serum IL-6, IL-8, ICAM and VCAM levels in type II diabetes mellitus (T2DM) with PAD patients were increased significantly (85.93, 597.08, 94.80 and 80.66) as compared to T2DM patients (59.52, 231.34, 56.88 and 50.19) and healthy individuals (4.81, 16.93, 5.55 and 5.16). The overall means for the parameters, IL-6, IL-8, ICAM, VCAM, urea, S/creatinine, CK-MB, AST, ALT, cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL, LDL, PT, aPTT, INR, HbA1C, and CRP within all groups were significantly (P < 0.05) different from each other. Therefore, it was concluded that the change in IL-6, IL-8, ICAM and VCAM can serve as an accurate diagnostic indicator and successful treatment.

Cardiac Biomarkers in Sports Cardiology

Sustained physical activity induces morphological and functional changes in the cardiovascular system. While mostly physiological, they can also become a trigger for major adverse cardiovascular events, the most severe of which are sudden cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death. Therefore, any novel method which can help more accurately estimate the cardiovascular risk should be considered for further studying and future implementation in the standard protocols. The study of biomarkers is gaining more and more ground as they have already established their utility in diagnosing ischemic cardiac disease or in evaluating cardiac dysfunction in patients with heart failure. Nowadays, they are being implemented in the screening of apparently healthy individuals for the assessment of the cardiovascular risk. The aim of this paper is to gather published data regarding the measurements of cardiac biomarkers in athletes, i.e., troponins, myoglobin, CK-MB, NT-proBNP, and D-Dimers, and their potential use in the field of sports cardiology.

Capillary Blood Recovery Variables in Young Swimmers: An Observational Case Study

Sport diagnostics is still in pursuit of the optimal combination of biochemical and hematological markers to assess training loads and the effectiveness of recovery. The biochemical and hematological markers selected for a panel should be specific to the sport and training program. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of selected biochemical and hematological variables in professional long-distance and sprint swimming. Twenty-seven participants aged 15–18 years took part in the study. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities and creatinine (Cr), C-reactive protein (CRP), ferritin, total bilirubin (TB), direct bilirubin (DB) and iron concentrations were measured for 10 weeks and compared with the traditional sport diagnostic markers of creatine kinase (CK) activity and urea (U) concentration. Additionally, capillary blood morphology was analyzed. An effective panel should consist of measurements of CK and AST activities and urea, TB, DB and ferritin concentrations. These markers provide a good overview of athletes’ post-training effort changes, can help assess the effectiveness of their recovery regardless of sex or competitive distance and are affordable. Moreover, changes in ferritin concentration can indicate inflammation status and, when combined with iron concentration and blood morphology, can help to avoid iron deficiencies, anemia and adverse inflammatory states in swimmers.

Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing and Cardiac Biomarker Measurements in Young Football Players: A Pilot Study

Constant and intense physical activity causes physiological adaptive changes in the human body, but it can also become a trigger for adverse events, such as sudden cardiac arrest or sudden cardiac death. Our main objective was to assess the use of combined cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) and cardiac biomarker determinants in young professional athletes. We conducted a study which involved the full examination of 19 football players, all male, aged between 18 and 20 years old. They underwent standard clinical and paraclinical evaluation, a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG), and transthoracic echocardiography (TTE). Afterwards, a tailored CPET was performed and peripheral venous blood samples were taken before and 3 h after the test in order to determine five biomarker levels at rest and post-effort. The measured biomarkers were cardiac troponin I (cTnI), myoglobin (Myo), the MB isoenzyme of creatine-kinase (CK-MB), the N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and D-dimers. While cTnI and NT-proBNP levels were undetectable both at rest and post-effort in all subjects, the variations in Myo, CK-MB and D-dimers showed significant correlations with CPET parameters. This highlights the potential use of combined CPET and biomarker determinants to evaluate professional athletes, and encourages further research on larger study groups.

Effectiveness of the contrast technique as recovery after effort according to professional athletes

Abstract Introduction: Alterations caused in the metabolism of those who practice physical exercise regularly generate health benefits, however, in athletes, these alterations can cause muscle damage, so post-recovery recovery methods are extremely important for their physiological maintenance. Objective: To analyze the effectiveness of the contrast therapy technique with post-exercise recovery according to professional athletes. Methods: A questionnaire was applied that addressed the technical scientific knowledge of professional athletes over 18 years of age, of both sexes, about post-exerciseffort recovery techniques (PERT), personal information, and ethical issues, on an online platform. Descriptive statistical analysis was performed, with values presented in percentages and an association through the Chi-Square test on the knowledge of PERT and other independent variables. Results: In total, 63 athletes, 15 women and 48 men, answered the online questionnaire, 71.4% were between 18 and 30 years old, including swimmers, footballers, and athletics practitioners, and 85.7% had more than three years' experience in the sport and 57.1% competed at an international level. Considering the main PERTs, 92.1% were aware, 58.7% knew more than four, 96.8% frequently used at least one PERT, and 65.1% had used it for more than three years. Knowledge of PERTs is associated with age (p = 0.001), education (p = 0.001), practice time (p = 0.001), hours of daily training (0.001), and competitive level (p = 0.03). With respect to the use of the contrast technique, 36.5% of the respondents had already used it, and 34.9% found it effective. Conclusion: The athletes who used the contrast technique reported a good perception of recovery.

Decrease in Cellular Nanovesicles Concentration in Blood of Athletes More Than 15 Hours After Marathon

Introduction

Cellular nanovesicles (CNVs), that are shed from cells, have been recognized as promising indicators of health status. We analyzed the effect of long-distance running on concentration of CNVs, along with some standard blood parameters, in 27 athletes two days before and >15 hours after physical effort.

Methods

CNVs were isolated by repetitive centrifugation and washing of samples, and assessed by flow cytometry. Cholinesterase (ChE) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity were measured spectrophotometrically. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) concentrations were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). C-reactive protein (CRP) was measured with immunoturbidimetric determination and lipidogram parameters were measured by enzymatic colorimetric assay. Flow cytometry was used for blood cell count and mean platelet volume (MPV) measurement.

Results

More than 15 hours after physical effort a decrease was found in CNVs' concentration in isolates from blood (46%; p<0.05), in ChE activity in whole blood (47%; p<0.001), in plasma (34%; p<0.01), and in erythrocyte suspension (54%; p<0.001), as well as in GST activity in erythrocyte suspension (16%; p<0.01) and in IL-6 concentration in plasma (63%; p<0.05). We found no change in GST activity in plasma and in TNF-α concentration in plasma. Correlations (>0.8; p<0.001) between CNVs' concentration and ChE activity, and GST activity, respectively, in erythrocyte suspension were found.

Conclusion

We found that >15 hours post-physical effort, CNVs' concentration was below the initial value, concomitant with other measured parameters: ChE and GST activity as well as IL-6 concentration, indicating a favorable effect of physical effort on health status. CNVs' concentration and ChE activity in isolates from peripheral blood proved to have potential as indicators of the response of the human body to inflammation after physical effort. Physical activity should be considered as an important factor in preparation of subjects for blood sampling in procedures focusing on CNV-containing diagnostic and therapeutic compounds.

The Influence of a Health-Related Fitness Training Program on Motor Performance as Well as Hematological and Biochemical Parameters

The study was aimed at designing a health exercise program appealing to inactive young men, and then testing the men's metabolic responses to the program using common diagnostic markers of general health. Six men, aged 22-29 years, took a part in training program to increase their motor performance and improve general health conditions. Body composition parameters, clinical chemistry variables (metabolites, albumin, total protein, ferritin, C reactive protein, lipid profile, ions, and selected enzymes activities) and blood morphology parameters were determined. Motor performance measured before and after a 4-month-long macrocycle indicated an increase in endurance, pace, and agility of the participants. Significant differences were found in analyzed enzymes activities. There was a significant increase in C-reactive protein levels from pre- to post-training. Additionally, changes in hematological biomarkers were seen that suggest erythropoiesis might significantly increase, specifically during the last 2-month-long mesocycles. The proposed training program induced small improvements in endurance, pace, and agility. It was also confirmed that changes in aspartate (AST) and alanine (ALT) activities emerge before any increase in creatine kinase (CK) activity that is important in monitoring of the training loads. Observed changes in red blood cell-related parameters suggest increase in erythropoiesis in the second half of the training cycle.

Blood Biomarkers of Recovery Efficiency in Soccer Players

Physical exercise strongly affects human metabolism and causes biochemical changes. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between routine plasma biomarker levels and recovery efficiency in soccer players during an entire competitive match season. The players participating in the study were divided into a midfielder/defender group (seven midfielders and seven defenders) and a goalie/substitute group (six persons—goalkeepers and players with a short cumulative match-time). The fasting capillary blood samples were taken 17–24 h after each competitive match. The blood plasma was used to determine the creatinine, urea, alkaline phosphatase, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate and alanine aminotransferase, iron and magnesium levels of the athletes. The levels of (AST) (aspartate aminotransferase), (ALT) (alanine aminotransferase) and (Cr) creatinine were higher in the midfielder/defender group than in the control group, but only AST and Cr significantly varied over time (AST decreased, and Cr increased with time). The (LDH) (lactate dehydrogenase) activity and urea level were significantly lower in the midfielder/defender group than in the goalie/substitute group, and it significantly varied over time (LDH decreased, and urea increased with time). No differences in the (CK) creatine kinase and (ALP) alkaline phosphatase activities between the groups was found, although CK increased significantly with time in the midfielder/defender group (particularly midfielders in the spring round). In midfielders, the AST activity and the iron level were significantly lower in the spring than in the autumn round. On the contrary, ALT, CK, urea and magnesium levels were significantly higher in the spring than in autumn round. A long-term measurement of biochemical parameters in elite soccer players indicated that AST, CK, LDH and creatinine levels, when analyzed together, could constitute a useful set of markers for monitoring recovery periods.

Analysis of selected T cell subsets in peripheral blood after exhaustive effort among elite soccer players

Introduction

Physical exercise induces developing of naïve T lymphocyte subsets into polarised effector ones by immune system. The aim of the study was to examine the influence of exhaustive effort on the selected Th cell subsets and inflammation markers among soccer players.

Materials and methods

Fourteen soccer players aged 18 (16-21) years old performed the progressive efficiency test on mechanical treadmill. Th and Tc memory lymphocytes’ subsets and selected cytokine concentrations pre-exercise, post-exercise and in recovery were analysed by flow cytometry.

Results

Physical effort induced changes in Th cell percentages. Increase in recovery Treg and Th17 cell subsets’ percentages in comparison to pre-exercise values were observed (10.98 (9.83-14.07) vs. 3.95 (3.15-5.53), P < 0.001 in autumn; 10.58 (7.54-12.67) vs. 4.83 (3.73-6.81), P < 0.010 in spring for Treg and 29.21 (26.34-32.16) vs. 21.64 (18.48-25.76) in autumn; 27.15 (24.60-29.16) vs. 17.43 (15.83-19.77) in spring, both P < 0.010; for Th17, respectively). Increases in Th1 cell percentages post-exercise (31.86 (28.72-33.72) in autumn, 25.60 (21.50-29.19) in spring, both P < 0.010) and in recovery (34.64 (31.21-38.20) in autumn; 26.68 (25.17-28.07) in spring, both P < 0.001) compared to pre-exercise (22.70 (21.21-26.74) for autumn and 15.64 (14.38-19.63) for spring, respectively) were found. Interestingly, no changes in Th2 cell subsets were found. Post-exercise and recovery changes in IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α and IL-10 were also observed.

Conclusions

It seems that the given effort in the progressive test induced an anabolic effect being related not only with cytokine profile but also with CD4⁺ T cells’ differentiation and peripheral distribution.

The Impact of the Progressive Efficiency Test on a Rowing Ergometer on White Blood Cells Distribution and Clinical Chemistry Changes in Paralympic Rowers During the Preparatory Stage Before the Paralympic Games in Rio, 2016 - A Case Report

There is a large gap in knowledge regarding research on post-exercise blood changes in disabled athletes. There are relatively few data on adaptive mechanisms to exercise in disabled athletes, including disabled rowers. Two rowers from a Polish adaptive rowing settle TAMix2x that qualified for the Paralympic Games in Rio, 2016 took part in this study. They performed a progressive test on a rowing ergometer until exhaustion. The cardiorespiratory fitness measures, complete blood count, white blood cells' distribution and 30 clinical chemistry variables describing laboratory diagnostic profiles and general health were determined. The extreme effort induced changes in all studied metabolites (glucose, creatinine, urea, uric acid, total and direct bilirubin), albumin, total protein levels in both participants. Furthermore, a post-exercise increase in aspartate transaminase activity, yet a 2-fold decrease during the recovery time in both rowers were found. White blood cell count increased 2-fold after the test. The percentages of natural killer cells were higher and total T lymphocytes were lower after the exercise protocol. There were higher percentages of suppressor/cytotoxic and lower percentages of helper/inducer T lymphocyte subsets in both studied rowers. No changes in B lymphocytes distribution were observed. Lack of inflammatory symptoms during the experiment suggests a high level of rowers' biological adaptation to the physical effort. The different changes in physiological, biochemical and immunological variables are related to the adaptive mechanism to physical exercise allowing for improvement of performance.

ACTH, Cortisol and IL-6 Levels in Athletes following Magnesium Supplementation

BACKGROUND

Physical exercise activates the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and induces the body's inflammatory response. Due to contemporary dietary habits and increased energy expenditure, athletes are susceptible to depletion of magnesium ions. The aim of our study was to investigate, through assessment of plasma ACTH, serum IL-6, and salivary/serum cortisol levels, if chronic magnesium supplementation might reduce damaging stress effects in amateur rugby players.

METHODS

Rugby players (N=23) were randomly assigned to intervention and control group. Basal samples were collected before intervention group started a 4-week-long supplementation with magnesium (500 mg Mg/d). Blood and saliva sampling were done a day before the match (Day-1), on the morning of competition (Game), and during a six-day-long recovery period (Day1, Day3 and Day6). ACTH, serum/salivary cortisol, IL-6 and total/differential leukocytes counts were determined at each time point.

RESULTS

There was a statistically significant increase in ACTH concentration in intervention group compared to control group, while reductions in cortisol concentrations between the two groups were the greatest at Day-1 (p < 0.01) and at the day of competition (Game) (p < 0.01). Our results revealed that magnesium completely abolished the increase in IL-6 level noted in control group on Day1 and Day3 vs. Day-1 (p < 0.01) and also diminished the rise in neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio in intervention group vs. control group (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest the possibly important influence magnesium supplementation might have on the change of parameters of HPA axis activity and reduction of immune response activation following strenuous physical exercise such as a rugby game.