Potentiation of electrochemotherapy by intramuscular IL-12 gene electrotransfer in murine sarcoma and carcinoma with different immunogenicity

Phase I trial of phIL12 plasmid intratumoral gene electrotransfer in patients with basal cell carcinoma in head and neck region

INTRODUCTION

In the treatment of cancer, immunomodulatory approaches are developed to support the organism in fighting cancer or to enhance the immunomodulatory effects of local ablative techniques. To this end, we conducted an interventional, open-label, single-arm Phase I trial to evaluate the safety and tolerability of intratumoral phIL12 plasmid DNA gene electrotransfer as primary objectives.

METHODS

The study was dose-escalating with 3 consecutive cohorts of 3 patients per phIL12 dose level (0.5 mg/ml, 1 mg/ml or 2 mg/ml) according to a matched 3 + 3 design. Recruitment of patients was staggered. The waiting period was 30 days after treatment of the previous patient, based on the expected duration of acute and subacute toxicity.

RESULTS

The results of this phase I clinical trial in basal cell carcinoma demonstrated the feasibility and safety of the phIL12 plasmid by gene electrotransfer. We were able to demonstrate that phIL12 gene electrotransfer induced local IL-12 production, which was accompanied with IFN-γ expression. Triggering of the immune response was demonstrated by increased infiltration of immune cells and some antitumor effect. Based on these data, we would recommend the use of a concentration of 2 mg/ml of the plasmid in future trials.

CONCLUSION

The trial lays the foundation for future Phase II clinical trials in which phIL12 gene electrotransfer is used in combination with local tumor-ablative approaches, such as electrochemotherapy or radiotherapy.

Clinical Insights and Future Prospects: A Comprehensive Narrative Review on Immunomodulation Induced by Electrochemotherapy

Electrochemotherapy (ECT) is an emerging therapeutic approach gaining growing interest for its potential immunomodulatory effects in cancer treatment. This narrative review systematically examines the current state of knowledge regarding the interplay between ECT and the immune system. Through an analysis of preclinical and clinical studies, the review highlights ECT capacity to induce immunogenic cell death, activate dendritic cells, release tumor antigens, trigger inflammatory responses, and occasionally manifest systemic effects-the abscopal phenomenon. These mechanisms collectively suggest the ECT potential to influence both local tumor control and immune responses. While implications for clinical practice appear promising, warranting the consideration of ECT as a complementary treatment to immunotherapy, the evidence remains preliminary. Consequently, further research is needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms, optimize treatment protocols, explore potential synergies, and decipher the parameters influencing the abscopal effect. As the field advances, the integration of ECT's potential immunomodulatory aspects into clinical practice will need careful evaluation and collaboration among clinical practitioners, researchers, and policymakers.

The equivalence of different types of electric pulses for electrochemotherapy with cisplatin - an in vitro study

BACKGROUND

Electrochemotherapy (ECT) is a treatment involving the administration of chemotherapeutics drugs followed by the application of 8 square monopolar pulses of 100 μs duration at a repetition frequency of 1 Hz or 5000 Hz. However, there is increasing interest in using alternative types of pulses for ECT. The use of high-frequency short bipolar pulses has been shown to mitigate pain and muscle contractions. Conversely, the use of millisecond pulses is interesting when combining ECT with gene electrotransfer for the uptake of DNA-encoding proteins that stimulate the immune response with the aim of converting ECT from a local to systemic treatment. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate how alternative types of pulses affect the efficiency of the ECT.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed in vitro experiments, exposing Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells to conventional ECT pulses, high-frequency bipolar pulses, and millisecond pulses in the presence of different concentrations of cisplatin. We determined cisplatin uptake by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and cisplatin cytotoxicity by the clonogenic assay.

RESULTS

We observed that the three tested types of pulses potentiate the uptake and cytotoxicity of cisplatin in an equivalent manner, provided that the electric field is properly adjusted for each pulse type. Furthermore, we quantified that the number of cisplatin molecules, resulting in the eradication of most cells, was 2-7 × 107 per cell.

CONCLUSIONS

High-frequency bipolar pulses and millisecond pulses can potentially be used in ECT to reduce pain and muscle contraction and increase the effect of the immune response in combination with gene electrotransfer, respectively.

Electrochemotherapy combined with immunotherapy - a promising potential in the treatment of cancer

Electrochemotherapy is a novel, locoregional therapy that is used to treat cutaneous and deep-seated tumors. The electric pulses used in electrochemotherapy increase the permeability of the cell membranes of the target lesion and thus enhance the delivery of low-permeant cytotoxic drugs to the cells, leading to their death. It has also been postulated that electrochemotherapy acts as an in situ vaccination by inducing immunogenic cell death. This in turn leads to an enhanced systemic antitumor response, which could be further exploited by immunotherapy. However, only a few clinical studies have investigated the role of combined treatment in patients with melanoma, breast cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. In this review, we therefore aim to review the published preclinical evidence on combined treatment and to review clinical studies that have investigated the combined role of electrochemotherapy and immunotherapy.

Gene Immunotherapy of Colon Carcinoma with IL-2 and IL-12 Using Gene Electrotransfer

Gene immunotherapy has become an important approach in the treatment of cancer. One example is the introduction of genes encoding immunostimulatory cytokines, such as interleukin 2 and interleukin 12, which stimulate immune cells in tumours. The aim of our study was to determine the effects of gene electrotransfer of plasmids encoding interleukin 2 and interleukin 12 individually and in combination in the CT26 murine colon carcinoma cell line in mice. In the in vitro experiment, the pulse protocol that resulted in the highest expression of IL-2 and IL-12 mRNA and proteins was used for the in vivo part. In vivo, tumour growth delay and also complete response were observed in the group treated with the plasmid combination. Compared to the control group, the highest levels of various immunostimulatory cytokines and increased immune infiltration were observed in the combination group. Long-term anti-tumour immunity was observed in the combination group after tumour re-challenge. In conclusion, our combination therapy efficiently eradicated CT26 colon carcinoma in mice and also generated strong anti-tumour immune memory.

Electrochemotherapy of Melanoma Cutaneous Metastases in Organ Transplant Recipients: A Systematic Review of Preclinical and Clinical Studies

Cutaneous melanoma is a highly aggressive form of skin cancer. The development of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has revolutionized the management of advanced melanoma, led to durable responses, and improved overall survival. However, the success of ICIs in melanoma treatment is influenced by the tumor microenvironment (TME) which plays a critical role in regulating the immune response to the tumor. Understanding the mechanisms underlying this interaction is crucial to optimizing the efficiency of ICIs. Electrochemotherapy (ECT) has been shown to enhance the efficacy of ICIs in melanoma treatment by inducing tumor cell death and facilitating the release of tumor antigens which can subsequently be recognized and targeted by the immune system. Moreover, ECT has been reported to modulate the TME, leading to increased infiltration of immune cells and a more favorable immunological profile. In this review, we summarize the available knowledge of changes in TME after ECT of melanoma cutaneous metastasis and highlight the differences in tumor-infiltrating immune cells between immunocompetent and immunosuppressed organisms. In addition, we showed that ECT can be an effective and safe procedure for organ transplant recipients. Furthermore, repeated ECT may enhance immune activation and probably induce a bystander effect by trained immunity.

Invasive and non-invasive electrodes for successful drug and gene delivery in electroporation-based treatments

Electroporation is an effective physical method for irreversible or reversible permeabilization of plasma membranes of biological cells and is typically used for tissue ablation or targeted drug/DNA delivery into living cells. In the context of cancer treatment, full recovery from an electroporation-based procedure is frequently dependent on the spatial distribution/homogeneity of the electric field in the tissue; therefore, the structure of electrodes/applicators plays an important role. This review focuses on the analysis of electrodes and in silico models used for electroporation in cancer treatment and gene therapy. We have reviewed various invasive and non-invasive electrodes; analyzed the spatial electric field distribution using finite element method analysis; evaluated parametric compatibility, and the pros and cons of application; and summarized options for improvement. Additionally, this review highlights the importance of tissue bioimpedance for accurate treatment planning using numerical modeling and the effects of pulse frequency on tissue conductivity and relative permittivity values.

Advances of Electroporation-Related Therapies and the Synergy with Immunotherapy in Cancer Treatment

Electroporation is the process of instantaneously increasing the permeability of a cell membrane under a pulsed electric field. Depending on the parameters of the electric pulses and the target cell electrophysiological characteristics, electroporation can be either reversible or irreversible. Reversible electroporation facilitates the delivery of functional genetic materials or drugs to target cells, inducing cell death by apoptosis, mitotic catastrophe, or pseudoapoptosis; irreversible electroporation is an ablative technology which directly ablates a large amount of tissue without causing harmful thermal effects; electrotherapy using an electric field can induce cell apoptosis without any aggressive invasion. Reversible and irreversible electroporation can also activate systemic antitumor immune response and enhance the efficacy of immunotherapy. In this review, we discuss recent progress related to electroporation, and summarize its latest applications. Further, we discuss the synergistic effects of electroporation-related therapies and immunotherapy. We also propose perspectives for further investigating electroporation and immunotherapy in cancer treatment.

Electroporation in Head-and-Neck Cancer: An Innovative Approach with Immunotherapy and Nanotechnology Combination

Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common malignancy that arises in the head-and-neck district. Traditional treatment could be insufficient in case of recurrent and/or metastatic cancers; for this reason, more selective and enhanced treatments are in evaluation in preclinical and clinical trials to increase in situ concentration of chemotherapy drugs promoting a selectively antineoplastic activity. Among all cancer treatment types (i.e., surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy), electroporation (EP) has emerged as a safe, less invasive, and effective approach for cancer treatment. Reversible EP, using an intensive electric stimulus (i.e., 1000 V/cm) applied for a short time (i.e., 100 μs), determines a localized electric field that temporarily permealizes the tumor cell membranes while maintaining high cell viability, promoting cytoplasm cell uptake of antineoplastic agents such as bleomycin and cisplatin (electrochemotherapy), calcium (Ca²⁺ electroporation), siRNA and plasmid DNA (gene electroporation). The higher intracellular concentration of antineoplastic agents enhances the antineoplastic activity and promotes controlled tumor cell death (apoptosis). As secondary effects, localized EP (i) reduces the capillary blood flow in tumor tissue ("vascular lock"), lowering drug washout, and (ii) stimulates the immune system acting against cancer cells. After years of preclinical development, electrochemotherapy (ECT), in combination with bleomycin or cisplatin, is currently one of the most effective treatments used for cutaneous metastases and primary skin and mucosal cancers that are not amenable to surgery. To reach this clinical evidence, in vitro and in vivo models were preclinically developed for evaluating the efficacy and safety of ECT on different tumor cell lines and animal models to optimize dose and administration routes of drugs, duration, and intensity of the electric field. Improvements in reversible EP efficacy are under evaluation for HNSCC treatment, where the focus is on the development of a combination treatment between EP-enhanced nanotechnology and immunotherapy strategies.

Defining optimal parameters to maximize the effect of electrochemotherapy on lung cancer cells whilst preserving the integrity of immune cells

Electrochemotherapy (ECT) is becoming an established therapy for melanoma and is under investigation for application in additional cancer types. One potential cancer type that may benefit from ECT is lung cancer as lung cancer treatments remain unable to deliver long-lasting treatment responses. Given the importance of the immune system in lung cancer, here we have also examined the impact of ECT on immune populations. The impact of electroporation and ECT on three human lung cancer cell lines (A549, H460, SK-MES 1), one murine cell line (LLC) and murine T cells, dendritic cells and macrophages was examined. The viability, metabolic activity and recovery potential post-treatment of all cell types was determined to evaluate the potential utility of ECT as a lung cancer treatment. Our findings demonstrate that cisplatin at 11 µM would be the suggested drug of choice when using ECT for lung cancer treatment. Our study also shows that T cells are not impacted by any tested condition, whilst dendritic cells and macrophages are significantly negatively impacted by electric field strengths surpassing 800 V/cm in vitro. Therefore, current ECT protocols (using 1000 V/cm in vivo) might need to adapted to improve viability of the immune population, thus improving therapy outcomes.

Induction of Bystander and Abscopal Effects after Electroporation-Based Treatments

Electroporation-based antitumor therapies, including bleomycin electrotransfer, calcium electroporation, and irreversible electroporation, are very effective on directly treated tumors, but have no or low effect on distal nodules. In this study, we aimed to investigate the abscopal effect following calcium electroporation and bleomycin electrotransfer and to find out the effect of the increase of IL-2 serum concentration by muscle transfection. The bystander effect was analyzed in in vitro studies on 4T1tumor cells, while abscopal effect was investigated in an in vivo setting using Balb/c mice bearing 4T1 tumors. ELISA was used to monitor IL-2 serum concentration. We showed that, similarly to cell treatment with bleomycin electrotransfer, the bystander effect occurs also following calcium electroporation and that these effects can be combined. Combination of these treatments also resulted in the enhancement of the abscopal effect in vivo. Since these treatments resulted in an increase of IL-2 serum concentration only in mice bearing one but not two tumors, we increased IL-2 serum concentration by muscle transfection. Although this did not enhance the abscopal effect of combined tumor treatment using calcium electroporation and bleomycin electrotransfer, boosting of IL-2 serum concentration had a significant inhibitory effect on directly treated tumors.

Electroporation and Immunotherapy-Unleashing the Abscopal Effect

Simple Summary

Electrochemotherapy and irreversible electroporation are primarily used for treating patients with cutaneous and subcutaneous tumors and pancreatic cancer, respectively. Increasing numbers of studies have shown that the treatments may elicit an immune response in addition to eliminating the tumor cells. The purpose of this review is to give an in-depth introduction to the electroporation-induced immune response and the local and peripheral immune systems, and to describe the various studies investigating the combination of electroporation and immunotherapy. The review may help guide and inspire the design of future clinical trials investigating the potential synergy of electroporation and immunotherapy in cancer treatment.

Abstract

The discovery of electroporation in 1968 has led to the development of electrochemotherapy (ECT) and irreversible electroporation (IRE). ECT and IRE have been established as treatments of cutaneous and subcutaneous tumors and locally advanced pancreatic cancer, respectively. Interestingly, the treatment modalities have been shown to elicit immunogenic cell death, which in turn can induce an immune response towards the tumor cells. With the dawn of the immunotherapy era, the potential of combining ECT and IRE with immunotherapy has led to the launch of numerous studies. Data from the first clinical trials are promising, and new combination regimes might change the way we treat tumors characterized by low immunogenicity and high levels of immunosuppression, such as melanoma and pancreatic cancer. In this review we will give an introduction to ECT and IRE and discuss the impact on the immune system. Additionally, we will present the results of clinical and preclinical trials, investigating the combination of electroporation modalities and immunotherapy.

Bleomycin Concentration in Patients' Plasma and Tumors after Electrochemotherapy. A Study from InspECT Group

The plasma concentration profile of bleomycin in the distribution phase of patients younger than 65 years is needed to determine the suitable time interval for efficient application of electric pulses during electrochemotherapy. Additionally, bleomycin concentrations in the treated tumors for effective tumor response are not known. In this study, the pharmacokinetic profile of bleomycin in the distribution phase in 12 patients younger than 65 years was determined. In 17 patients, the intratumoral bleomycin concentration was determined before the application of electric pulses. In younger patients, the pharmacokinetics of intravenously injected bleomycin demonstrated a faster plasma clearance rate than that in patients older than 65 years. This outcome might indicate that the lowering of the standard bleomycin dose of 15,000 IU/m² with intravenous bleomycin injection for electrochemotherapy is not recommended in younger patients. Based on the plasma concentration data gathered, a time interval for electrochemotherapy of 5-15 min after bleomycin injection was determined. The median bleomycin concentration in tumors 8 min after bleomycin injection, at the time of electroporation, was 170 ng/g. Based on collected data, the reduction of the bleomycin dose is not recommended in younger patients; however, a shortened time interval for application of electric pulses in electrochemotherapy to 5-15 min after intravenous bleomycin injection should be considered.

Clinical Applications and Immunological Aspects of Electroporation-Based Therapies

Reversible electropermeabilization (RE) is an ultrastructural phenomenon that transiently increases the permeability of the cell membrane upon application of electrical pulses. The technique was described in 1972 by Neumann and Rosenheck and is currently used in a variety of applications, from medicine to food processing. In oncology, RE is applied for the intracellular transport of chemotherapeutic drugs as well as the delivery of genetic material in gene therapies and vaccinations. This review summarizes the physical changes of the membrane, the particularities of bleomycin, and the immunological aspects involved in electrochemotherapy and gene electrotransfer, two important EP-based cancer therapies in human and veterinary oncology.

Tumor perfusion evaluation using dynamic contrast-enhanced ultrasound after electrochemotherapy and IL-12 plasmid electrotransfer in murine melanoma

Electrochemotherapy with bleomycin (ECT BLM) is an effective antitumor treatment already used in clinical oncology. However, ECT alone is still considered a local antitumor therapy because it cannot induce systemic immunity. When combined with adjuvant gene electrotransfer of plasmid DNA encoding IL-12 (GET pIL-12), the combined therapy leads to a systemic effect on untreated tumors and distant metastases. Although the antitumor efficacy of both therapies alone or in combination has been demonstrated at both preclinical and clinical levels, data on the predictors of efficacy of the treatments are still lacking. Herein, we evaluated the results of dynamic contrast-enhanced ultrasound (DCE-US) as a predictive factor for ECT BLM and GET pIL-12 in murine melanoma. Melanoma B16F10 tumors grown in female C57Bl/6NCrl mice were treated with GET pIL-12 and ECT BLM. Immediately after therapy, 6 h and 1, 3, 7 and 10 days later, tumors were examined by DCE-US. Statistical analysis was performed to inspect the correlation between tumor doubling time (DT) and DCE-US measurements using semilinear regression models and Bland-Altman plots. Therapeutic groups in which DCE-US showed reduced tumor perfusion had longer tumor DTs. It was confirmed that the DCE-US parameter peak enhancement (PE), reflecting relative blood volume, had predictive value for the outcome of therapy: larger PE correlated with shorter DT. In addition, perfusion heterogeneity was also associated with outcome: tumors that had more heterogeneous perfusion had faster growth, i.e., shorter DTs. This study demonstrates that DCE-US can be used as a method to predict the efficacy of electroporation-based treatment.

Results of Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Correlate With Treatment Outcome in Canine Neoplasia Treated With Electrochemotherapy and Interleukin-12 Plasmid Electrotransfer

Electrochemotherapy (ECT) and/or gene electrotransfer of plasmid DNA encoding interleukin-12 (GET pIL-12) are effective treatments for canine cutaneous, subcutaneous, and maxillofacial tumors. Despite the clinical efficacy of the combined treatments of ECT and GET, data on parameters that might predict the outcome of the treatments are still lacking. This study aimed to investigate whether dynamic contrast-enhanced ultrasound (DCE-US) results of subcutaneous tumors differ between tumors with complete response (CR) and tumors without complete response (non-CR) in dogs treated with ECT and GET pIL-12. Eight dogs with a total of 12 tumor nodules treated with ECT and GET pIL-12 were included. DCE-US examinations were performed in all animals before and immediately after therapy as well as 8 h and 1, 3, and 7 days later. Clinical follow-up examinations were performed 7 and 14 days, 1 and 6 months, and 1 year after treatment. Numerous significant differences in DCE-US parameters were noted between tumors with CR and non-CR tumors; perfusion and perfusion heterogeneity were lower in CR tumors than in non-CR tumors. Therefore, studies with larger numbers of patients are needed to investigate whether DCE-US results can be used to predict treatment outcomes and to make effective decisions about the need for repeated therapy or different treatment combinations in individual patients.

Potentiation of electrochemotherapy effectiveness by immunostimulation with IL-12 gene electrotransfer in mice is dependent on tumor immune status

Electrochemotherapy (ECT) exhibits high therapeutic effectiveness in the clinic, achieving up to 80% local tumor control but without a systemic (abscopal) effect. Therefore, we designed a combination therapy consisting of ECT via intratumoral application of bleomycin, oxaliplatin or cisplatin with peritumoral gene electrotransfer of a plasmid encoding interleukin-12 (p. t. IL-12 GET). Our hypothesis was that p. t. IL-12 GET potentiates the effect of ECT on local and systemic levels and that the potentiation varies depending on tumor immune status. Therefore, the combination therapy was tested in three immunologically different murine tumor models. In poorly immunogenic B16F10 melanoma, IL-12 potentiated the antitumor effect of ECT with biologically equivalent low doses of cisplatin, oxaliplatin or bleomycin. The most pronounced potentiation was observed after ECT using cisplatin, resulting in a complete response rate of 38% and an abscopal effect. Compared to B16F10 melanoma, better responsiveness to ECT was observed in more immunogenic 4 T1 mammary carcinoma and CT26 colorectal carcinoma. In both models, p. t. IL-12 GET did not significantly improve the therapeutic outcome of ECT using any of the chemotherapeutic drugs. Collectively, the effectiveness of the combination therapy depends on tumor immune status. ECT was more effective in more immunogenic tumors, but GET exhibited greater contribution in less immunogenic tumors. Thus, the selection of the therapy, namely, either ECT alone or combination therapy with p. t. IL-12, should be predominantly based on tumor immune status.

Electrochemotherapy in the Treatment of Head and Neck Cancer: Current Conditions and Future Directions

Simple Summary

Electrochemotherapy (ECT) was first introduced in the late 1980s and was initially used mainly on cutaneous tumors. It has now evolved into a clinically verified treatment approach. Thanks to its high feasibility, it has been extended to treating mucosal and deep-seated tumors, including head and neck cancer (HNC) and in heavily pretreated settings. This review describes current knowledge and data on the use of ECT in various forms of HNCs across different clinical settings, with attention to future clinical and research perspectives.

Abstract

Despite recent advances in the development of chemotherapeutic drug, treatment for advanced cancer of the head and neck cancer (HNC) is still challenging. Options are limited by multiple factors, such as a prior history of irradiation to the tumor site as well as functional limitations. Against this background, electrochemotherapy (ECT) is a new modality which combines administration of an antineoplastic agent with locally applied electric pulses. These pulses allow the chemotherapeutic drug to penetrate the intracellular space of the tumor cells and thereby increase its cytotoxicity. ECT has shown encouraging efficacy and a tolerable safety profile in many clinical studies, including in heavily pre-treated HNC patients, and is considered a promising strategy. Efforts to improve its efficacy and broaden its application are now ongoing. Moreover, the combination of ECT with recently developed novel therapies, including immunotherapy, represented by immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)s, has attracted attention for its potent theoretical rationale. More extensive, well-organized clinical studies and timely updating of consensus guidelines will bring this hopeful treatment to HNC patients under challenging situations.

Biological factors of the tumour response to electrochemotherapy: Review of the evidence and a research roadmap

The beneficial effects of electrochemotherapy (ECT) for superficial tumours and, more recently, deep-seated malignancies in terms of local control and quality of life are widely accepted. However, the variability in responses across histotypes needs to be explored. Currently, patient selection for ECT is based on clinical factors (tumour size, histotype, and exposure to previous oncological treatments), whereas there are no biomarkers to predict the response to treatment. In this field, two major areas of investigation can be identified, i.e., tumour cell characteristics and the tumour microenvironment (vasculature, extracellular matrix, and immune infiltrate). For each of these areas, we describe the current knowledge and discuss how to foster further investigation. This review aims to provide a summary of the currently used guiding clinical factors and delineates a research roadmap for future studies to identify putative biomarkers of response to ECT. These biomarkers may allow researchers to improve ECT practice by customising treatment parameters, manipulating the tumour and its microenvironment, and exploring novel therapeutic combinations.

Electroporation-Based Treatments in Urology

The observation that an application of a pulsed electric field (PEF) resulted in an increased permeability of the cell membrane has led to the discovery of the phenomenon called electroporation (EP). Depending on the parameters of the electric current and cell features, electroporation can be either reversible or irreversible. The irreversible electroporation (IRE) found its use in urology as a non-thermal ablative method of prostate and renal cancer. As its mechanism is based on the permeabilization of cell membrane phospholipids, IRE (as well as other treatments based on EP) provides selectivity sparing extracellular proteins and matrix. Reversible EP enables the transfer of genes, drugs, and small exogenous proteins. In clinical practice, reversible EP can locally increase the uptake of cytotoxic drugs such as cisplatin and bleomycin. This approach is known as electrochemotherapy (ECT). Few in vivo and in vitro trials of ECT have been performed on urological cancers. EP provides the possibility of transmission of genes across the cell membrane. As the protocols of gene electrotransfer (GET) over the last few years have improved, EP has become a well-known technique for non-viral cell transfection. GET involves DNA transfection directly to the cancer or the host skin and muscle tissue. Among urological cancers, the GET of several plasmids encoding prostate cancer antigens has been investigated in clinical trials. This review brings into discussion the underlying mechanism of EP and an overview of the latest progress and development perspectives of EP-based treatments in urology.

Large Liver Blood Vessels and Bile Ducts Are Not Damaged by Electrochemotherapy with Bleomycin in Pigs

The first clinical studies on the use of electrochemotherapy to treat liver tumours that were not amenable to surgery or thermal ablation techniques have recently been published. However, there is still a lack of data on the effects of electrochemotherapy on normal liver tissue. Therefore, we designed a translational animal model study to test whether electrochemotherapy with bleomycin causes clinically significant damage to normal liver tissue, with emphasis on large blood vessels and bile ducts. We performed electrochemotherapy with bleomycin or delivered electric pulses alone using a potentially risky treatment strategy in eight pigs. Two and seven days after treatment, livers were explanted, and histological analysis was performed. Blood samples were collected before treatment and again before euthanasia to evaluate blood biomarkers of liver function and systemic inflammatory response. We found no thrombosis or other clinically significant damage to large blood vessels and bile ducts in the liver. No clinical or laboratory findings suggested impaired liver function or systemic inflammatory response. Electrochemotherapy with bleomycin does not cause clinically significant damage to normal liver tissue. Our study provides further evidence that electrochemotherapy with bleomycin is safe for treatment of patients with tumours near large blood vessels in the liver.

Electrochemotherapy - Emerging applications technical advances, new indications, combined approaches, and multi-institutional collaboration

The treatment of tumors with electrochemotherapy (ECT) has surged over the past decade. Thanks to the transient cell membrane permeabilization induced by the short electric pulses used by ECT, cancer cells are exposed to otherwise poorly permeant chemotherapy agents, with consequent increased cytotoxicity. The codification of the procedure in 2006 led to a broad diffusion of the procedure, mainly in Europe, and since then, the progressive clinical experience, together with the emerging technologies, have extended the range of its application. Herein, we review the key advances in the ECT field since the European Standard Operating Procedures on ECT (ESOPE) 2006 guidelines and discuss the emerging clinical data on the new ECT indications. First, technical developments have improved ECT equipment, with custom electrode probes and dedicated tools supporting individual treatment planning in anatomically challenging tumors. Second, the feasibility and short-term efficacy of ECT has been established in deep-seated tumors, including bone metastases, liver malignancies, and pancreatic and prostate cancers (long-needle variable electrode geometry ECT), and gastrointestinal tumors (endoscopic ECT). Moreover, pioneering studies indicate lung and brain tumors as suitable future targets. A further advance relates to new combination strategies with immunotherapy, gene electro transfer (GET), calcium EP, and radiotherapy. Finally and fourth, cross-institutional collaborative groups have been established to refine procedural guidelines, promote clinical research, and explore new indications.

ICOS activation in combination with electrochemotherapy generates effective anti-cancer immunological responses in murine models of primary, secondary and metastatic disease

Electrochemotherapy is an evolving therapy which has recently been shown to induce an immunogenic form of cell death. It is hypothesized that the immunogenic cell death induced by electrochemotherapy may compliment the responses seen with anti-cancer immunotherapies. We therefore examined the effect of electrochemotherapy in combination with ICOS activation, which promotes the activity of previously activated T cells. In comparison to either monotherapy which resulted in no curative outcomes in any model, in a CT26 primary tumour 50% of mice were cured, with 100% of cured mice surviving tumour rechallenge. In a dual flank CT26 model mimicking secondary disease 20% of mice were cured, and 30% of mice were cured using an aggressively metastatic Lewis Lung Carcinoma model. We have shown the novel combination of electrochemotherapy with ICOS activation can inhibit local and distal tumour growth, including total tumour clearance with long lasting immunological memory.

Effects of Electrochemotherapy with Cisplatin and Peritumoral IL-12 Gene Electrotransfer on Canine Mast Cell Tumors: a Histopathologic and Immunohistochemical Study

Background

The study was aimed to characterize tumor response after combined treatment employing electrochemotherapy with IL-12 gene electrotransfer in dogs with spontaneous mast cell tumors (MCT).

Materials and methods

Eleven dogs with eleven MCT_s were included in the study. Histological changes were investigated in biopsy specimens collected before the treatment (T₀), and 4 (T₁) and 8 weeks (T₂) later. Cellular infiltrates were characterized immunohistochemically by using anti CD3, CD20, Foxp3 (Treg), CD68 and anti MHC-class II antibodies. Proliferation and anti-apoptotic activity of neoplastic cells were assessed using anti Ki-67 and Bcl-2 antibodies. Angiogenetic processes were investigated immunohistochemically by using anti Factor VIII and anti CD31 antibodies and micro vessel density quantification.

Results

Histopathological examination of samples at T₀ confirmed the diagnosis and the presence of scanty infiltrates consisted mainly of T-lymphocytes and macrophages. At T₁ and T₂ neoplastic cells were drastically reduced in 7/11 cases, small clusters of neoplastic cells were detected in 3/11 cases and 1/11 cases neoplastic cells were still evident. Proliferation activity of neoplastic cells was significantly reduced at T₁ and T₂ and expression of anti-apoptotic protein at T₁. Microvessel density was drastically reduced in all samples after treatment. The number of T-lymphocytes increased at T₁, although not significant, while Treg were significant higher at T₁ and macrophages at T₂.

Conclusions

The combined electrochemotherapy and IL-12 gene electrotransfer effectively induced a cellular response against neoplastic cells characterized mainly by the recruitment of T-lymphocytes and macrophages and a fibrotic proliferation with reduction of microvessels.

In Vitro and in vivo Evaluation of Electrochemotherapy with trans-platinum Analogue trans-[PtCl2(3-Hmpy)2]

Background

Cisplatin is used in cancer therapy, but its side effects and acquired resistance to cisplatin have led to the synthesis and evaluation of new platinum compounds. Recently, the synthesized platinum compound trans-[PtCl₂(3-Hmpy)₂] (3-Hmpy = 3-hydroxymethylpyridine) (compound 2) showed a considerable cytotoxic and antitumour effectiveness. To improve compound 2 cytotoxicity in vitro and antitumour effectiveness in vivo, electroporation was used as drug delivery approach to increase membrane permeability (electrochemotherapy).

Materials and methods

In vitro, survival of sarcoma cells with different intrinsic sensitivity to cisplatin (TBLCl2 sensitive, TBLCl2Pt resistant and SA-1 moderately sensitive) was determined using a clonogenic assay after treatment with compound 2 or cisplatin electrochemotherapy. In vivo, the antitumour effectiveness of electrochemotherapy with compound 2 or cisplatin was evaluated using a tumour growth delay assay. In addition, platinum in the serum, tumours and platinum bound to the DNA in the cells were performed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.

Results

In vitro, cell survival after treatment with compound 2 electrochemotherapy was significantly decreased in all tested sarcoma cells with different intrinsic sensitivity to cisplatin (TBLCl2 sensitive, TBLCl2Pt resistant and SA-1 moderately sensitive). However, this effect was less pronounced compared to cisplatin. Interestingly, the enhancement factor (5-fold) of compound 2 cytotoxicity was equal in cisplatin-sensitive TBLCl2 and cisplatin-resistant TBLCl2Pt cells. In vivo, the growth delay of subcutaneous tumours after treatment with compound 2 electrochemotherapy was lower compared to cisplatin. The highest antitumour effectiveness after cisplatin or compound 2 electrochemotherapy was obtained in TBLCl2 tumours, resulting in 67% and 11% of tumour cures, respectively. Compound 2 induced significantly smaller loss of animal body weight compared to cisplatin. Furthermore, platinum amounts in tumours after compound 2 or cisplatin electrochemotherapy were approximately 2-fold higher compared to the drug treatment only, and the same increase of platinum bound to DNA was observed.

Conclusions

The obtained results in vitro and in vivo suggest compound 2 as a potential antitumour agent in electrochemotherapy.

Gene Electrotransfer of Plasmid-Encoding IL-12 Recruits the M1 Macrophages and Antigen-Presenting Cells Inducing the Eradication of Aggressive B16F10 Murine Melanoma

Cancer immunotherapy is currently one of the leading approaches in cancer treatment. Gene electrotransfer of plasmids encoding interleukin 12 (IL-12) into the cells leads to the production of IL-12, which drives immune cell polarization to an antitumoral response. One of the cell types that shows great promise in targeting tumor cells under the influence of IL-12 cytokine milieu is that of macrophages. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate gene electrotransfer of antibiotic resistance-free plasmid DNA-encoding murine IL-12 (mIL-12) in mice bearing aggressive B16F10 murine melanoma. IL-12 electrotransfer resulted in the complete long-term eradication of the tumors. Serum mIL-12 and murine interferon γ (mIFNγ) were increased after IL-12 gene electrotransfer. Further on, hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining showed increased infiltration of immune cells that lasted from day 4 until day 14. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining of F4/80, MHCII, and CD11c showed higher positive staining in the IL-12 gene electrotransfer group than in the control groups. Immune cell infiltration into the tumors and the high density of MHCII- and CD11c-positive cells suggest an antitumor polarization of macrophages and the presence of antigen-presenting cells that contributes to the important antitumor effectiveness of IL-12.

The promising alliance of anti-cancer electrochemotherapy with immunotherapy

Anti-tumor electrochemotherapy, which consists in increasing anti-cancer drug uptake by means of electroporation, is now implanted in about 140 cancer treatment centers in Europe. Its use is supported by the English National Institute for Health and Care Excellence for the palliative treatment of skin metastases, and about 13,000 cancer patients were treated by this technology by the end of 2015. Efforts are now focused on turning this local anti-tumor treatment into a systemic one. Electrogenetherapy, that is the electroporation-mediated transfer of therapeutic genes, is currently under clinical evaluation and has brought excitement to enlarge the anti-cancer armamentarium. Among the promising electrogenetherapy strategies, DNA vaccination and cytokine-based immunotherapy aim at stimulating anti-tumor immunity. We review here the interests and state of development of both electrochemotherapy and electrogenetherapy. We then emphasize the potent beneficial outcome of the combination of electrochemotherapy with immunotherapy, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors or strategies based on electrogenetherapy, to simultaneously achieve excellent local debulking anti-tumor responses and systemic anti-metastatic effects.

Electrotransfer parameters as a tool for controlled and targeted gene expression in skin

Skin is an attractive target for gene electrotransfer. It consists of different cell types that can be transfected, leading to various responses to gene electrotransfer. We demonstrate that these responses could be controlled by selecting the appropriate electrotransfer parameters. Specifically, the application of low or high electric pulses, applied by multi-electrode array, provided the possibility to control the depth of the transfection in the skin, the duration and the level of gene expression, as well as the local or systemic distribution of the transgene. The influence of electric pulse type was first studied using a plasmid encoding a reporter gene (DsRed). Then, plasmids encoding therapeutic genes (IL-12, shRNA against endoglin, shRNA against melanoma cell adhesion molecule) were used, and their effects on wound healing and cutaneous B16F10 melanoma tumors were investigated. The high-voltage pulses resulted in gene expression that was restricted to superficial skin layers and induced a local response. In contrast, the low-voltage electric pulses promoted transfection into the deeper skin layers, resulting in prolonged gene expression and higher transgene production, possibly with systemic distribution. Therefore, in the translation into the clinics, it will be of the utmost importance to adjust the electrotransfer parameters for different therapeutic approaches and specific mode of action of the therapeutic gene.

Electrochemotherapy guided by intraoperative fluorescence imaging for the treatment of inoperable peritoneal micro-metastases

Surgery is often the first therapeutic indication in cancer. Patient survival essentially depends on the completeness of tumor resection. This is a major challenge, particularly in patients with peritoneal carcinomatosis (PC), where tumors are widely disseminated in the large peritoneal cavity. These small tumors can be difficult to visualize and are often positioned in delicate locations, further increasing the risk of producing serious tissue/organ damage during their ablation. We propose an innovative therapeutic approach based on intraoperative fluorescence (IF) guided electrochemotherapy (ECT) for the treatment of peritoneal micro-metastases. ECT combines the effects of tissue electro-permeabilization (EP) with the administration of an antimitotic agent (bleomycin) that has poor permeability across intact membranes. IF significantly improves the detection of small tumor lesions. ECT is clinically validated for the treatment of cutaneous tumors in animals and humans, but this is the first time that it has been used along with IF imaging for the targeted treatment of peritoneal metastases in a preclinical model. We set up a murine model of PC that develops secondarily to the resection of a distant primary tumor. Tumor growth and metastasis were finely monitored by non-invasive multimodal imaging (bioluminescence and 3D fluorescence/microCT). Once metastases were detected, mice were randomized into three groups: the ECT group (bleomycin injected intravenously followed by EP) and 2 control groups (bleomycin alone and EP alone). Twenty four hours after the intravenous injection of the tumor targeting agent Angiostamp™700, mice in all groups underwent an abdominal surgery for metastases exploration assisted by fluorescence imaging with the Fluobeam®700 portative device. EP was applied to every nodule detected by IF, except in the bleomycin control group. After surgery, the metastatic invasion was tracked by bioluminescence imaging. In mice treated with bleomycin or EP alone, the metastatic load progressed very rapidly and mice showed no significant difference in lifespan compared to non-operated mice (median lifespan: 27days vs. 25days, respectively). In contrast, the mice treated with ECT displayed a decreased metastatic load and an increased survival rate (median lifespan: 34days). These results provide evidence that IF guided ECT is an effective approach for the treatment of inoperable intraperitoneal micro-metastases.

Effectiveness of electrochemotherapy after IFN-α adjuvant therapy of melanoma patients

Background

The combination of electrochemotherapy with immuno-modulatory treatments has already been explored and proven effective. However, the role of interferon alpha (IFN-α) adjuvant therapy of melanoma patients and implication on electrochemotherapy effectiveness has not been explored yet. Therefore, the aim of the study was to retrospectively evaluate the effectiveness and safety of electrochemotherapy after the previous adjuvant treatment with IFN-α in melanoma patients.

Patients and methods

The study was a retrospective single-center observational analysis of the patients with advanced melanoma, treated with electrochemotherapy after previous IFN-α adjuvant therapy. Five patients, treated between January 2008 and December 2014, were included into the study, regardless of the time point of IFN-α adjuvant therapy.

Results

Electrochemotherapy of recurrent melanoma after the IFN-α adjuvant therapy proved to be a safe and effective treatment. Patients with one or two metastases responded completely. Among patients with multiple metastases, there was a variable response rate. In one patient all 23 metastases responded completely, in second patient more than 85% of all together 80 metastases responded completely and in third patient all 5 metastases had partial response. Taking into account all metastases from all patients together there was an 85% complete response rate.

Conclusions

The study showed that electrochemotherapy of recurrent melanoma after the IFN-α adjuvant therapy is a safe and effective treatment modality, which results in a high complete response rate, not only in single metastasis, but also in multiple metastases. The high complete response rate might be due to an IFN-α immune-editing effect, however, further studies with a larger number of patients are needed to support this presumption.

Efficacy and safety of electrochemotherapy combined with peritumoral IL-12 gene electrotransfer of canine mast cell tumours

Electrochemotherapy combined with peritumoral interleukin-12 (IL-12) gene electrotransfer was used for treatment of mast cell tumours in 18 client-owned dogs. Local tumour control, recurrence rate, as well as safety of combined therapy were evaluated. One month after the therapy, no side effects were recorded and good local tumour control was observed with high complete responses rate which even increased during the observation period to 72%. IL-12 gene electrotransfer resulted in 78% of patients with detectable serum IFN-γ and/or IL-12 levels. In the treated tumours vascular changes as well as minimal T-lymphocytes infiltration was observed. After 1 week, the plasmid DNA was not detected intra- or peritumorally and no horizontal gene transfer was observed. In summary, our study demonstrates high antitumour efficacy of electrochemotherapy combined with IL-12 electrotransfer, which also prevented recurrences or distant metastases, as well as its safety and feasibility in treatment of canine mast cell tumours.

Electrochemotherapy of tumors as in situ vaccination boosted by immunogene electrotransfer

Electroporation is a platform technology for drug and gene delivery. When applied to cell in vitro or tissues in vivo, it leads to an increase in membrane permeability for molecules which otherwise cannot enter the cell (e.g., siRNA, plasmid DNA, and some chemotherapeutic drugs). The therapeutic effectiveness of delivered chemotherapeutics or nucleic acids depends greatly on their successful and efficient delivery to the target tissue. Therefore, the understanding of different principles of drug and gene delivery is necessary and needs to be taken into account according to the specificity of their delivery to tumors and/or normal tissues. Based on the current knowledge, electrochemotherapy (a combination of drug and electric pulses) is used for tumor treatment and has shown great potential. Its local effectiveness is up to 80 % of local tumor control, however, without noticeable effect on metastases. In an attempt to increase systemic antitumor effectiveness of electrochemotherapy, electrotransfer of genes with immunomodulatory effect (immunogene electrotransfer) could be used as adjuvant treatment. Since electrochemotherapy can induce immunogenic cell death, adjuvant immunogene electrotransfer to peritumoral tissue could lead to locoregional effect as well as the abscopal effect on distant untreated metastases. Therefore, we propose a combination of electrochemotherapy with peritumoral IL-12 electrotransfer, as a proof of principle, using electrochemotherapy boosted with immunogene electrotransfer as in situ vaccination for successful tumor treatment.

Gene electrotransfer of plasmid AMEP, an integrin-targeted therapy, has antitumor and antiangiogenic action in murine B16 melanoma

Gene therapy with Plasmid AMEP (antiangiogenic metargidin peptide) has recently been studied as a potential targeted therapy for melanoma. This plasmid is designed to downregulate α5β1 and αvβ3 integrins. In our study, electroporation was used as a nonviral delivery system. We investigated the antiangiogenic and direct antitumor effectiveness of this gene therapy on low and highly metastatic B16 melanoma variants. In vitro, the antiangiogenic effectiveness as determined by tube formation assay on endothelial cells was predominantly dependent on AMEP expression levels. In vivo, antitumor effectiveness was mediated by the inhibition of proliferation, migration and invasion of melanoma cells and correlated with the expression of integrins on tumor cells after intratumor delivery. In addition, reduced metastatic potential was shown. Intramuscular gene electrotransfer of Plasmid AMEP, for AMEP systemic distribution, had no antitumor effect with this specific preventive treatment protocol, confirming that direct tumor delivery was more effective. This study confirms our previous in vitro data that the expression levels of integrins on melanoma cells could be used as a biomarker for antitumor effectiveness in integrin-targeted therapies, whereas the expression levels of AMEP peptide could be a predictive factor for antiangiogenic effectiveness of Plasmid AMEP in the treatment of melanoma.

Adjuvant TNF-α therapy to electrochemotherapy with intravenous cisplatin in murine sarcoma exerts synergistic antitumor effectiveness

Background

Electrochemotherapy is a tumour ablation modality, based on electroporation of the cell membrane, allowing non-permeant anticancer drugs to enter the cell, thus augmenting their cytotoxicity by orders of magnitude. In preclinical studies, bleomycin and cisplatin proved to be the most suitable for clinical use. Intravenous administration of cisplatin for electrochemotherapy is still not widely accepted in the clinics, presumably due to its lower antitumor effectiveness, but adjuvant therapy by immunomodulatory or vascular-targeting agents could provide a way for its potentiation. Hence, the aim of the present study was to explore the possibility of adjuvant tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α) therapy to potentiate antitumor effectiveness of electrochemotherapy with intravenous cisplatin administration in murine sarcoma.

Materials and methods

In vivo study was designed to evaluate the effect of TNF-α applied before or after the electrochemotherapy and to evaluate the effect of adjuvant TNF-α on electrochemotherapy with different cisplatin doses.

Results

A synergistic interaction between TNF-α and electrochemotherapy was observed. Administration of TNF-α before the electrochemotherapy resulted in longer tumour growth delay and increased tumour curability, and was significantly more effective than TNF-α administration after the electrochemotherapy. Tumour analysis revealed increased platinum content in tumours, TNF-α induced blood vessel damage and increased tumour necrosis after combination of TNF-α and electrochemotherapy, indicating an anti-vascular action of TNF-α. In addition, immunomodulatory effect might have contributed to curability rate of the tumours.

Conclusion

Adjuvant intratumoural TNF-α therapy synergistically contributes to electrochemotherapy with intravenous cisplatin administration. Due to its potentiation at all doses of cisplatin, the combined treatment is predicted to be effective also in tumours, where the drug concentration is suboptimal or in bigger tumours, where electrochemotherapy with intravenous cisplatin is not expected to be sufficiently effective.

Safe and effective treatment of spontaneous neoplasms with interleukin 12 electro-chemo-gene therapy

Electroporation improves the anti-tumour efficacy of chemotherapeutic and gene therapies. Combining electroporation-mediated chemotherapeutics with interleukin 12 (IL-12) plasmid DNA produces a strong yet safe anti-tumour effect for treating primary and refractory tumours. A previously published report demonstrated the efficacy of a single cycle of IL-12 plasmid DNA and bleomycin in canines, and, similarly, this study further demonstrates the safety and efficacy of repeated cycles of chemotherapy plus IL-12 gene therapy for long-term management of aggressive tumours. Thirteen canine patients were enrolled in this study and received multiple cycles of electro-chemo-gene therapy (ECGT) with IL-12 pDNA and either bleomycin or gemcitabine. ECGT treatments are very effective for inducing tumour regression via an antitumour immune response in all tested histotypes except for sarcomas, and these treatments can quickly eradicate or debulk large squamous cell carcinomas. The versatility of ECGT allows for response-based modifications which can overcome treatment resistance for affecting refractory lesions. Importantly, not a single severe adverse event was noted even in animals receiving the highest doses of chemotherapeutics and IL12 pDNA over multiple treatment cycles. This report highlights the safety, efficacy and versatility of this treatment strategy. The data reveal the importance of inducing a strong anti-tumour response for successfully affecting not only the treated tumours, but also non-treated metastatic tumours. ECGT with IL12 pDNA plus chemotherapy is an effective strategy for treating multiple types of spontaneous cancers including large, refractory and multiple tumour burdens.

Electrochemotherapy: from the drawing board into medical practice

Electrochemotherapy is a local treatment of cancer employing electric pulses to improve transmembrane transfer of cytotoxic drugs. In this paper we discuss electrochemotherapy from the perspective of biomedical engineering and review the steps needed to move such a treatment from initial prototypes into clinical practice. In the paper also basic theory of electrochemotherapy and preclinical studies in vitro and in vivo are briefly reviewed. Following this we present a short review of recent clinical publications and discuss implementation of electrochemotherapy into standard of care for treatment of skin tumors, and use of electrochemotherapy for other targets such as head and neck cancer, deep-seated tumors in the liver and intestinal tract, and brain metastases. Electrodes used in these specific cases are presented with their typical voltage amplitudes used in electrochemotherapy. Finally, key points on what should be investigated in the future are presented and discussed.

Biological properties of melanoma and endothelial cells after plasmid AMEP gene electrotransfer depend on integrin quantity on cells

The data on the biological responsiveness of melanoma and endothelial cells that are targeted by Antiangiogenic MEtargidin Peptide (AMEP) are limited; therefore, the antiproliferative, antimetastatic and antiangiogenic effects of AMEP were investigated in murine melanoma and human endothelial cells after plasmid AMEP gene electrotransfer into the cells in vitro. Plasmid AMEP, a plasmid coding for the disintegrin domain of metargidin targeting specific integrins, had cytotoxic and antiproliferative effects on murine melanoma and human endothelial cells. Among the metastatic properties of cells, migration, invasion and adhesion were investigated. Plasmid AMEP strongly affected the migration of murine melanoma and human endothelial cell lines and also affected the invasion of highly metastatic murine melanoma B16F10 and human endothelial cell lines. There was no effect on cell adhesion on Matrigel(TM) or fibronectin in all cell lines. The antiangiogenic effect was shown with tube formation assay, where human microvascular endothelial cell line (HMEC-1) proved to be more sensitive to plasmid AMEP gene electrotransfer than the human umbilical vein endothelial cell line (HUVEC). The study indicates that antiproliferative and antimetastatic biological responses to gene electrotransfer of plasmid AMEP in murine melanoma cells were dependent on the integrin quantity on melanoma cells and not on the expression level of AMEP. The strong antiangiogenic effect expressed in human endothelial cell lines was only partly dependent on the quantity of integrins and seemed to be plasmid AMEP dose dependent.

Differential mechanisms associated with vascular disrupting action of electrochemotherapy: intravital microscopy on the level of single normal and tumor blood vessels

Electropermeabilization/electroporation (EP) provides a tool for the introduction of molecules into cells and tissues. In electrochemotherapy (ECT), cytotoxic drugs are introduced into cells in tumors, and nucleic acids are introduced into cells in gene electrotransfer. The normal and tumor tissue blood flow modifying effects of EP and the vascular disrupting effect of ECT in tumors have already been determined. However, differential effects between normal vs. tumor vessels, to ensure safety in the clinical application of ECT, have not been determined yet. Therefore, the aim of our study was to determine the effects of EP and ECT with bleomycin on the HT-29 human colon carcinoma tumor model and its surrounding blood vessels. The response of blood vessels to EP and ECT was monitored in real time, directly at the single blood vessel level, by in vivo optical imaging in a dorsal window chamber in SCID mice with 70 kDa fluorescently labeled dextrans. The response of tumor blood vessels to EP and ECT started to differ within the first hour. Both therapies induced a vascular lock, decreased functional vascular density (FVD) and increased the diameter of functional blood vessels within the tumor. The effects were more pronounced for ECT, which destroyed the tumor blood vessels within 24 h. Although the vasculature surrounding the tumor was affected by EP and ECT, it remained functional. The study confirms the current model of tumor blood flow modifying effects of EP and provides conclusive evidence that ECT is a vascular disrupting therapy with a specific effect on the tumor blood vessels.

Radiosensitizing effect of intratumoral interleukin-12 gene electrotransfer in murine sarcoma

Background

Interleukin-12 (IL-12) based radiosensitization is an effective way of tumor treatment. Local cytokine production, without systemic shedding, might provide clinical benefit in radiation treatment of sarcomas. Therefore, the aim was to stimulate intratumoral IL-12 production by gene electrotransfer of plasmid coding for mouse IL-12 (mIL-12) into the tumors, in order to explore its radiosensitizing effect after single or multiple intratumoral gene electrotransfer.

Methods

Solid SA-1 fibrosarcoma tumors, on the back of A/J mice, were treated intratumorally by mIL-12 gene electrotransfer and 24 h later irradiated with a single dose. Treatment effectiveness was measured by tumor growth delay and local tumor control assay (TCD₅₀ assay). With respect to therapeutic index, skin reaction in the radiation field was scored. The tumor and serum concentrations of cytokines mIL-12 and mouse interferon γ (mIFNγ) were measured. Besides single, also multiple intratumoral mIL-12 gene electrotransfer before and after tumor irradiation was evaluated.

Results

Single intratumoral mIL-12 gene electrotransfer resulted in increased intratumoral but not serum mIL-12 and mIFNγ concentrations, and had good antitumor (7.1% tumor cures) and radiosensitizing effect (21.4% tumor cures). Combined treatment resulted in the radiation dose-modifying factor of 2.16. Multiple mIL-12 gene electrotransfer had an even more pronounced antitumor (50% tumor cures) and radiosensitizing (86.7% tumor cures) effect.

Conclusions

Single or multiple intratumoral mIL-12 gene electrotransfer resulted in increased intratumoral mIL-12 and mIFNγ cytokine level, and may provide an efficient treatment modality for soft tissue sarcoma as single or adjuvant therapy to tumor irradiation.