Nutritional value of fish meals in the diet for young pigs

Research progress on cottonseed meal as a protein source in pig nutrition: An updated review

At a global level, the supply of protein sources is insufficient to support the current magnitude of pig production. Moreover, given the exorbitant expense of conventional protein feed options like soybean meal and fish meal, it becomes imperative to promptly explore alternative sources of protein feed for the sustainable advancement of the pig industry. Cottonseed meal, a by-product from the extraction of cottonseed oil, exhibits significant potential as a protein source for pig feed owing to its high protein content, high yield, low cost, well-balanced amino acid composition, and sufficient accessibility. However, cottonseed meal possesses several anti-nutritional factors, especially gossypol, which adversely affect growth and reproductive performance, resulting in the limited utilization of cottonseed meal in pig feed. To maximize the benefits of cottonseed meal and promote its application in pig production, it is imperative to acquire comprehensive knowledge regarding its nutritional value and current utilization. In this review, we initially presented a summary of the nutritional values of cottonseed meal, primary anti-nutritional factors, and effective approaches for improving its utilization as a protein source feed. Subsequently, we comprehensively summarized the latest research progress of cottonseed meal application in pig nutrition over the past decade. The outcome of this review serves as a theoretical foundation and practical guidance for the research and application of cottonseed meal in pig nutrition and promotes the reduction of soybean meal utilization in the pig industry.

Development and application of a multi-step porcine in vitro system to evaluate feedstuffs and feed additives for their efficacy in nutrient digestion, digesta characteristics, and intestinal immune responses

In vitro model provides alternatives to the use of live animals in research. In pig nutrition, there has been a tremendous increase in in vivo research over the decades. Proper utilization of in vitro models could provide a screening tool to reduce the needs of in vivo studies, research duration, cost, and the use of animals and feeds. This study aimed to develop a multi-step porcine in vitro system to simulate nutrient digestion and intestinal epithelial immune responses affected by feedstuffs and feed additives. Seven feedstuffs (corn, corn distillers dried grains with solubles [corn DDGS], barley, wheat, soybean meal, soy protein concentrates, and Corynebacterium glutamicum cell mass [CGCM]), feed enzymes (xylanase and phytase), and supplemental amino acids (arginine, methionine, and tryptophan), were used in this in vitro evaluation for their efficacy on digestibility, digesta characteristics, and intestinal health compared with the results from previously published in vivo studies. All in vitro evaluations were triplicated. Data were analyzed using Mixed procedure of SAS9.4. Evaluations included (1) nutrient digestibility of feedstuffs, (2) the effects of feed enzymes, xylanase and phytase, on digestibility of feedstuffs and specific substrates, and (3) the effects of amino acids, arginine, tryptophan, and methionine, on anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and anti-heat stress statuses showing their effects (P < 0.05) on the measured items. Differences in dry matter and crude protein digestibility among the feedstuffs as well as effects of xylanase and phytase were detected (P < 0.05), including xylo-oligosaccharide profiles and phosphorus release from phytate. Supplementation of arginine, tryptophan, and methionine modulated (P < 0.05) cellular inflammatory and oxidative stress responses. The use of this in vitro model allowed the use of 3 experimental replications providing sufficient statistical power at P < 0.05. This indicates in vitro models can have increased precision and consistency compared with in vivo animal studies.

Effect of extrusion on energy and nutrient digestibility of lentil-based diets containing either supplemental plant or animal protein fed to growing pigs

Non-food grade and excess lentil grain production may be included in swine feeds to provide starch and protein and reduce feed cost. Extrusion processing may increase energy and nutrient digestibility of lentil-based diets containing either supplemental plant or animal protein sources. Therefore, the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA), apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE), and digestible energy (DE) value of lentil-based diets were assessed in growing pigs. Two diets were formulated to provide 2.4 Mcal net energy (NE)/kg and 4.35 g standardized ileal digestible lysine/Mcal NE: (1) soybean meal (SBM) diet, containing 50% lentil, 31% wheat, and 12.8% SBM; and (2) fish meal (FM) diet, containing 40% lentil, 45% wheat, and 10% FM. Following mixing, each diet batch was divided into two parts: one part remained as mash, whereas the other part was extruded using a single-screw extruder (400 rpm, 250 kg/h). Eight ileal-cannulated barrows (32.3 ± 1.5 kg) were fed the four diets at 2.8 times maintenance DE requirement (110 kcal per kg of body weight0.75) for four 9-d periods in a double 4 × 4 Latin square to achieve 8 observations per diet. Data were analyzed as a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement including protein source, post-mixing processing, and their interaction as fixed effects. The lentil sample contained 32.3% starch, 24.4% CP, 9.3% total dietary fiber, and 1.7 mg/g of trypsin inhibitor activity on as is-basis. Interactions between dietary protein source and post-mixing processing were not observed. Feeding FM diets resulted in greater (P < 0.05) AID of dry matter (DM), GE, and most AA, and ATTD of CP, but lower apparent hindgut fermentation of DM and GE than SBM diets. Extrusion increased (P < 0.05) the ATTD of GE and DE value of diets. The AID of CP and AA was 3.2 and 4.7%-units greater (P < 0.05), respectively, for the extruded than mash diets. In conclusion, feeding FM diets resulted in greater ileal digestibility of DM, GE, and AA than SBM diets. Extrusion increased the AID of CP and most AA, and DE value of lentil-based diets containing either supplemental plant protein or animal-protein, indicating that extrusion can increase the energy and protein value of plant-based diets fed to pigs.

Nutritional and functional roles of β-mannanase on intestinal health and growth of newly weaned pigs fed two different types of feeds

This study aimed to investigate the nutritional and functional roles of β-mannanase on the intestinal health and growth of newly weaned pigs fed a typical or low-cost formulated feeds (LCF). Twenty-four newly weaned pigs at 6.2 kg ± 0.4 body weight (BW) were allotted to three dietary treatments based on a randomized complete block design with sex and initial BW as blocks. Three dietary treatments are as follows: Control, typical nursery feeds including animal protein supplements and enzyme-treated soybean meal; LCF with increased amounts of soybean meal, decreased amounts of animal protein supplements, and no enzyme-treated soybean meal; LCF+, low-cost formulated feed with β-mannanase at 100 g/t, providing 800 thermostable β-mannanase unit (TMU) per kg of feed. Pigs were fed based on a three-phase feeding program for a total of 37 d. On day 37 of feeding, all pigs were euthanized and the gastrointestinal tract was removed for sample collection to analyze intestinal health parameters, mucosa-associated microbiota, and gene expression of tight junction proteins. Pigs fed LCF increased (P < 0.05) the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and Helicobacter in the jejunal mucosa, tended to decrease (P = 0.097; P = 0.098) the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) and the expression of zona occluden 1 (ZO-1) gene in the jejunum, tended to decrease average daily gain (ADG; P = 0.084) and final BW (P = 0.090), and decreased (P < 0.05) average daily feed intake. Pigs fed LCF + tended to decrease (P = 0.088) digesta viscosity, decreased (P < 0.05) the relative abundance of Helicobacter, and increased (P < 0.05) Lactobacillus in the jejunal mucosa compared to LCF. Additionally, LCF + tended to increase final BW (P = 0.059) and ADG (P = 0.054), increased (P < 0.05) gain to feed ratio (G:F), and reduced (P < 0.05) fecal score compared to LCF. LCF with decreased amounts of animal protein supplements and increased amounts of soybean meal had negative effects on the composition of the mucosa-associated microbiota, intestinal integrity, and growth performance of nursery pigs. Beta-mannanase supplementation to LCF decreased digesta viscosity, increased the relative abundance of potentially health-benefitting microbiota such as Lactobacillus, and improved growth and fecal score, thus reflecting its efficacy in low-cost formulated feeds with increased amounts of soybean meal.

A blend of bacillus-fermented soybean meal, functional amino acids, and nucleotides improves nutrient digestibility, bolsters immune response, reduces diarrhea, and enhances growth performance in weaned piglets

This study investigated the effects of a blend of bacillus-fermented soybean meal, functional amino acids, and nucleotides (Functional protein blend-FP Blend) as a replacement for animal protein sources in a weaner pig diet without antibiotic growth promoters on nutrient digestibility, blood profiles, intestinal morphology, diarrhea incidence, and growth performance. A total of 288 crossbred weaned piglets [♂ Duroc x ♀ (Yorkshire × Landrace)] with an average body weight (BW) of 6.89 ± 0.71 kg were randomly allocated to 6 groups based on initial BW and sex (8 replicate pens per treatment; 3 gilts and 3 barrows/pen). The experiment lasted for 5 wk. Dietary treatments included PC [standard diet with 3% fish meal (FM) and 2% plasma protein (PP)], NC (nonanimal protein, AP), T1 (3% FM replaced with 5% FP Blend), T2 (3% FM and 1% PP replaced with 5% FP Blend), T3 (2% PP replaced with 5% FP Blend), and T4 (3% FM and 2% PP replaced with 5% FP Blend). Data were analyzed using Minitab version 17 software. Key results indicated that FP Blend improved the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) coefficient of dry matter, gross energy, lysine, and valine in T4 compared with NC treatment (P < 0.05), whereas AID coefficient of crude protein and other amino acids remained constant (P > 0.05). Compared with NC diet, the weaned pigs fed T4 diet reduced malondialdehyde, serum IL8, TNF-α, and increased IgG (P < 0.05), while showing no effect on serum IL6, IL10, white blood cells, IgA, and endotoxin (P > 0.05). Furthermore, FP blend significantly increased villus height in the duodenum and ileum in T4 compared with NC (P < 0.05). The average daily gain (ADG) was highest in T4 (502.73 g/d), followed by T1 (477.96 g/d) and T2 (475.85 g/d), compared with PC (450.86 g/d) and NC (439.79 g/d). T4's ADG significantly differed from PC and NC (P < 0.001), whereas no significant differences were observed in T1, T2, and T3 (P > 0.05). The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was significantly lower in T4 (1.45) compared with PC (1.57) and NC (1.59) (P < 0.001), with no significant differences among other groups. In conclusion, FP Blend demonstrated efficacy in improving nutrient digestibility, optimizing intestinal morphology, bolstering immune responses, reducing diarrhea incidence, alleviating the adverse effects of weaning stress, and enhancing growth performance of weaned piglets.

Efficacy of soy protein concentrate replacing animal protein supplements in mucosa-associated microbiota, intestinal health, and growth performance of nursery pigs

This study investigated the effects of using soy protein concentrate (SPC) to replace animal protein supplements on mucosa-associated microbiota, intestinal health, and growth performance of nursery pigs. Fifty-six newly weaned pigs (BW = 6.4 ± 0.6 kg) were allotted to 5 treatments in a randomized complete block design. Pigs were fed for 35 d in 3 phases (P; 1, 2, 3) for 10, 12, 13 d, respectively. Dietary treatments were: (1) basal diet with fish meal (P1: 4%, P2: 2%, and P3: 1%), poultry meal (P1: 10%, P2: 8%, and P3: 4%), and blood plasma (P1: 4%, P2: 2%, and P3: 1%), where SPC replacing none (NC); (2) basal diet with SPC replacing fish meal (RFM); (3) basal diet with SPC replacing poultry meal (RPM); (4) basal diet with SPC replacing blood plasma (RBP); and (5) basal diet with SPC replacing all animal protein supplements (PC). Growth performance was recorded for each phase. Pigs were euthanized on d 35 to collect jejunal mucosa and tissue to evaluate intestinal health and microbiota, and ileal digesta to measure apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of nutrients. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS. Overall, RFM, RPM, and RBP did not affect growth performance, whereas PC decreased (P < 0.05) ADG and ADFI. The RPM increased (P < 0.05) Prevotella stercorea and decreased (P < 0.05) Helicobacter rappini. The PC decreased (P < 0.05) H. rappini, whilst increasing (P < 0.05) Prevotella copri, Propionibacterium acnes, and Pelomonas aquatica. The RFM tended to increase (P = 0.096) immunoglobulin A in the jejunum. The PC tended to decrease (P = 0.078) jejunal crypt cell proliferation. There were no differences in the villus height, AID of nutrients, intestinal inflammation, and intestinal oxidative stress among treatments. In conclusion, SPC can replace fish meal, poultry meal, or blood plasma individually without affecting growth performance and intestinal health, and AID of nutrients of nursery pigs. Particularly SPC replacing poultry meal benefitted intestinal health by reducing H. rappini and increasing P. stercorea. However, SPC replacing all three animal protein supplements reduced growth of nursery pigs mainly by reducing feed intake.

Comparative effects of soy protein concentrate, enzyme-treated soybean meal, and fermented soybean meal replacing animal protein supplements in feeds on growth performance and intestinal health of nursery pigs

BACKGROUND

Soy protein supplements, with high crude protein and less antinutritional factors, are produced from soybean meal by different processes. This study evaluated the comparative effects of various soy protein supplements replacing animal protein supplements in feeds on the intestinal immune status, intestinal oxidative stress, mucosa-associated microbiota, and growth performance of nursery pigs.

METHODS

Sixty nursery pigs (6.6 ± 0.5 kg BW) were allotted to five treatments in a randomized complete block design with initial BW and sex as blocks. Pigs were fed for 39 d in 3 phases (P1, P2, and P3). Treatments were: Control (CON), basal diet with fish meal 4%, 2%, and 1%, poultry meal 10%, 8%, and 4%, and blood plasma 4%, 2%, and 1% for P1, P2, and P3, respectively; basal diet with soy protein concentrate (SPC), enzyme-treated soybean meal (ESB), fermented soybean meal with Lactobacillus (FSBL), and fermented soybean meal with Bacillus (FSBB), replacing 1/3, 2/3, and 3/3 of animal protein supplements for P1, P2, and P3, respectively. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure in SAS 9.4.

RESULTS

The SPC did not affect the BW, ADG, and G:F, whereas it tended to reduce (P = 0.094) the ADFI and tended to increase (P = 0.091) crypt cell proliferation. The ESM did not affect BW, ADG, ADFI, and G:F, whereas tended to decrease (P = 0.098) protein carbonyl in jejunal mucosa. The FSBL decreased (P < 0.05) BW and ADG, increased (P < 0.05) TNF-α, and Klebsiella and tended to increase MDA (P = 0.065) and IgG (P = 0.089) in jejunal mucosa. The FSBB tended to increase (P = 0.073) TNF-α, increased (P < 0.05) Clostridium and decreased (P < 0.05) Achromobacter and alpha diversity of microbiota in jejunal mucosa.

CONCLUSIONS

Soy protein concentrate, enzyme-treated soybean meal, and fermented soybean meal with Bacillus could reduce the use of animal protein supplements up to 33% until 7 kg body weight, up to 67% from 7 to 11 kg body weight, and entirely from 11 kg body weight without affecting the intestinal health and the growth performance of nursery pigs. Fermented soybean meal with Lactobacillus, however, increased the immune reaction and oxidative stress in the intestine consequently reducing the growth performance.

Comparative effects of benzoic acid and sodium benzoate in diets for nursery pigs on growth performance and acidification of digesta and urine

The objective of this study was to evaluate the comparative effects of benzoic acid and sodium benzoate in feeds on digesta pH, urinary pH, and growth performance for nursery pigs. A total of 432 pigs (6.9 ± 0.9 kg BW) were assigned to eight treatments (6 pigs per pen, replication = 9) in a randomized complete block design with initial body weight (BW) as a block and fed for 41 d in three phases (7/17/17 d, respectively). Treatments were 1) a basal diet (NC), 2) NC + 0.25% bacitracin methylene disalicylate (antibiotic; bacitracin: 250 g/t feed; PC), 3) NC + 0.25% benzoic acid, 4) NC + 0.35% benzoic acid, 5) NC + 0.50% benzoic acid, 6) NC + 0.30% sodium benzoate, 7) NC + 0.40% sodium benzoate, and 8) NC + 0.60% sodium benzoate. Growth performance and fecal scores were measured for each phase. One gilt representing the median BW of each pen was euthanized to collect digesta from the stomach, proximal jejunum, distal jejunum, and cecum, and urine. The PC tended to improve average daily gain (ADG) in phase 1 (P = 0.052) and phase 2 (P = 0.093) as well as average daily feed intake (ADFI) in phase 2 (P = 0.052). Overall, increasing supplemental benzoic acid tended to have a quadratic effect on ADG (P = 0.094), but no difference in ADFI was observed. Increasing supplemental sodium benzoate showed a quadratic effect (P < 0.05) on ADG and linearly increased (P < 0.05) ADFI. Urinary pH linearly decreased (P < 0.05) with increasing supplemental benzoic acid, but was not affected by supplemental sodium benzoate. Increasing supplemental benzoic acid or sodium benzoate linearly increased (P < 0.05) benzoic acid content in digesta of the stomach. Increasing supplemental benzoic acid or sodium benzoate also linearly increased (P < 0.05) urinary hippuric acid. However, the PC did not decrease urinary pH or increase urinary benzoic acid and hippuric acid. With slope-ratio assay using ADG and urinary hippuric acid as dependent variables and benzoic acid intake as an independent variable, the relative bioavailability of benzoic acid compared to sodium benzoate was not different. In conclusion, supplementation of benzoic acid and sodium benzoate could improve the growth performance of nursery pigs. The relative bioavailability of sodium benzoate to benzoic acid of nursery pigs did not differ based on BW gain and urinary hippuric acid.

Use of Microorganisms as Nutritional and Functional Feedstuffs for Nursery Pigs and Broilers

The objectives of this review paper are to introduce the structures and composition of various microorganisms, to show some applications of single cells as alternative protein supplements or energy feeds in swine and poultry diets, and to discuss the functional effects of microorganisms as feed additives on the growth performance and intestinal health of nursery pigs and broilers. Microorganisms, including bacteria, yeasts, and microalgae, have been commonly supplemented in animal diets because they are cost-effective, stable, and have quantitative production that provides nutritional and functional benefits to pigs and broilers. Microorganisms could be alternative antibiotics to enhance intestinal health due to bioactive components from cell wall components, which interact with receptors on epithelial and immune cells. In addition, bioactive components could be digested by intestinal microbiota to produce short-chain fatty acids and enhance energy utilization. Otherwise, microorganisms such as single-cell protein (SCP) and single-cell oils (SCOs) are sustainable and economic choices to replace conventional protein supplements and energy feeds. Supplementing microorganisms as feedstuffs and feed additives improved the average daily gain by 1.83%, the daily feed intake by 0.24%, and the feed efficiency by 1.46% in pigs and broilers. Based on the properties of each microorganism, traditional protein supplements, energy feeds, and functional feed additives could be replaced by microorganisms, which have shown benefits to animal's growth and health. Therefore, specific microorganisms could be promising alternatives as nutritional and functional feedstuffs in animal diets.

A nontyphoidal Salmonella serovar domestication accompanying enhanced niche adaptation

Invasive nontyphoidal Salmonella (iNTS) causes extraintestinal infections with ~15% case fatality in many countries. However, the mechanism by which iNTS emerged in China remains unaddressed. We conducted clinical investigations of iNTS infection with recurrent treatment failure, caused by underreported Salmonella enterica serovar Livingstone (SL). Genomic epidemiology demonstrated five clades in the SL population and suggested that the international animal feed trade was a likely vehicle for their introduction into China, as evidenced by multiple independent transmission incidents. Importantly, isolates from Clade-5-I-a/b, predominant in China, showed an invasive nature in mice, chicken and zebrafish infection models. The antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed most isolates (> 96%) in China are multidrug-resistant (MDR). Overall, we offer exploiting genomics in uncovering international transmission led by the animal feed trade and highlight an emerging hypervirulent clade with increased resistance to frontline antibiotics.

Nutritional and functional values of lysed Corynebacterium glutamicum cell mass for intestinal health and growth of nursery pigs

The objective was to determine the nutritional and functional values of lysed Corynebacterium glutamicum cell mass (CGCM) as a protein supplement and a source of cell wall fragments supporting the growth and intestinal health of nursery pigs. Thirty-two pigs (21 d of age) were allotted to four treatments (n = 8) based on the randomized block design with sex and initial body weight (BW) as blocks. The main effect was the dietary supplementation of lysed CGCM (0, 0.7, 1.4, and 2.1%) replacing blood plasma and fed in two phases (10 and 11 d, respectively). Feed intake and BW were measured at the end of each phase. Pigs were euthanized on day 21 to collect jejunal tissue and mucosa to evaluate intestinal health. Ileal digesta were collected to measure the apparent ileal digestibility of nutrients in diets. Data were analyzed using Proc Mixed and Reg of SAS. Increasing daily intake of CGCM increased (linear; P < 0.05) ADG of pigs. Increasing CGCM supplementation affected (quadratic; P < 0.05) the relative abundance of Lactobacillaceae (minimum: 26.4% at 1.2% CGCM), Helicobacteraceae (maximum: 29.3% at 1.2% CGCM), and Campylobacteraceae (maximum: 9.0% at 1.0% CGCM). Increasing CGCM supplementation affected (quadratic; P < 0.05) the concentrations of immunoglobulin G (maximum: 4.94 µg/mg of protein at 1.0% CGCM) and protein carbonyl (PC; maximum: 6.12 nmol/mg of protein at 1.1% CGCM), whereas linearly decreased (P < 0.05) malondialdehyde (MDA) in the proximal jejunal mucosa. Increasing CGCM supplemention affected (quadratic; P < 0.05) intestinal enterocyte proliferation rate (maximum: 13.3% at 1.0% CGCM), whereas it did not affect intestinal morphology and the nutrient digestibility. In conclusion, supplementing 1.0% to 1.2%, reducing blood plasma supplementation by 0.7% to 0.9%, respectively, increased potential pathogenic microbiota associated in the jejunal mucosa resulting in increased immune response, enterocyte proliferation, and PC concentration. However, supplementing diets with 2.1% CGCM, replacing 1.5% blood plasma, improved growth performance, and reduced MDA without affecting nutrient digestibility, intestinal morphology, and microbiota in the jejunal mucosa. In this study, based on the polynomial contrast, supplementing 1.0% to 1.2% CGCM suppressed the benefits from blood plasma, whereas supplementing 2.1% CGCM showed functional benefits of CGCM with similar effects from blood plasma supplementation.

Impacts of weaning age on dietary needs of whey permeate for pigs at 7 to 11 kg body weight

Background

Whey permeate is an effective lactose source for nursery pigs and the most benefits are obtained when pigs are at 7 to 11 kg BW. Altering weaning ages could cause different length of early-weaner phases until 7 kg BW and thus it would influence the dietary need of whey permeate during 7 to 11 kg BW of pigs. This study aimed to evaluate if weaning ages would affect the dietary needs of whey permeate for optimum growth performance of pigs at 7 to 11 kg BW.

Methods

A total of 1,632 pigs were weaned at d 21 (d 21.2 ± 1.3) or d 25 (d 24.6 ± 1.1) after birth. All pigs had a common early-weaner feeds until they reached 7 kg BW. When pigs reached 7 kg BW within a weaning age group, they were allotted in a randomized complete block design (2 × 4 factorial). Two factors were weaning age groups (21 and 25 d of age) and varying whey permeate levels (7.50%, 11.25%, 15.00%, and 18.75%). Data were analyzed using the GLM and NLIN procedures of SAS for slope-ratio and broken-line analyses to determine the growth response to whey permeate and optimal daily whey permeate intake for the growth of the pigs weaned at different ages.

Results

Pigs weaned at 21 d of age had a common diet for 11 d to reach 7 kg BW whereas pigs weaned at 25 d of age needed 2 d. The G:F of pigs weaned at 25 d of age responded to increased daily whey permeate intake greater (P < 0.05) than pigs weaned at 21 d of age. Breakpoints were obtained (P < 0.05) at 88 and 60 g/d daily whey permeate intake or 17.0% and 14.4% of whey permeate for G:F of pigs weaned at 21 and 25 d of age, respectively.

Conclusion

Pigs weaned at an older age with a short early-weaner phase had a greater growth response to whey permeate intake compared with pigs weaned at a younger age with a long early-weaner phase. Altering weaning ages affected dietary needs of whey permeate for optimum growth performance of pigs from 7 to 11 kg BW.

Corn protein has greater concentrations of digestible amino acids and energy than low-oil corn distillers dried grains with solubles when fed to pigs but does not affect the growth performance of weanling pigs

Three experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) and digestible energy (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME) in a new source of corn protein are greater than in corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) and that corn protein may be included in diets for weanling pigs. In experiment 1, the SID of AA was determined in two sources of DDGS (DDGS-1 and DDGS-2) and in corn protein. Results indicated that SID of most AA was greater (P < 0.05) in DDGS-2 and corn protein than in DDGS-1, but corn protein contained more digestible AA than both sources of DDGS. In experiment 2, the DE and ME in corn, the two sources of DDGS, and corn protein were determined. Results demonstrated that DE (dry matter basis) in corn protein was greater (P < 0.05) than in corn, but ME (dry matter basis) was not different between corn and corn protein. However, DE and ME in corn (dry matter basis) were greater (P < 0.05) than in DDGS-1 and DDGS-2. In experiment 3, 160 weanling pigs were allotted to four treatments in phases 1 and 2 and a common diet in phase 3. Corn protein was included at 5% to 10% in phases 1 and 2 at the expense of plasma protein and enzyme-treated soybean meal. Results indicated that although differences in average daily gain and gain to feed ratio were observed in phase 1, no differences among treatments were observed for the overall experimental period. In conclusion, the concentration of digestible AA is greater in corn protein than in DDGS; DE and ME in corn protein are also greater than in DDGS; and up to 10% corn protein may be included in phase 1 and phase 2 diets for weanling pigs.

Energy concentration and phosphorus digestibility in meat meal, fish meal, and soybean meal fed to pigs

Objective

The objectives of the present study were to determine digestible energy (DE), metabolizable energy (ME), and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of phosphorus (P) in meat meal (MM) and to compare these values with those in fish meal (FM), and soybean meal (SBM) fed to pigs.

Methods

Two experiments were conducted to determine energy concentrations and STTD of P in MM, FM, and SBM fed to growing pigs. In Exp. 1, DE and ME in the 3 test ingredients were measured using 24 barrows with initial body weight (BW) of 77.7±8.3 kg. A corn-based diet and 3 diets containing corn and 22% to 30% of each test ingredient were prepared. In Exp. 2, the STTD of P in the 3 test ingredients was measured using 24 barrows (90.9±6.6 kg BW). Three diets were formulated to contain each test ingredient as the sole source of P.

Results

In Exp. 1, the DE and ME values in MM (3,310 and 2,856 kcal/kg dry matter [DM]) were less (p<0.05) than those in FM (4,121 and 3,572 kcal/kg DM) and SBM (4,390 and 4,032 kcal/kg DM). In Exp. 2, FM (64.3%) had greater (p<0.05) STTD of P than SBM (44.8%) with MM (55.8%) having intermediate STTD of P.

Conclusion

The MM contains less energy concentrations compared with FM and SBM, and digestibility of phosphorus in MM does not differ from that in FM and SBM.

Effect of torula yeast on growth performance, diarrhea incidence, and blood characteristics in weanling pigs

Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that torula yeast may replace animal and plant proteins in diets for weanling pigs without negatively impacting growth performance or blood characteristics. In exp. 1, 128 weanling pigs (6.71 ± 0.76 kg) were allotted to four treatments with four pigs per pen and eight replicate pens per diet. Pigs were fed one of four diets from day 1 to 14 post-weaning (phase 1), whereas all pigs were fed a common diet in phase 2 (day 15 to 28). The four dietary treatments included a control diet with 5% fish meal, 2.5% plasma protein, and no torula yeast. The second diet contained 5% fish meal, 4.75% torula yeast, and no plasma protein. The third diet contained 2.5% plasma protein, 6% torula yeast, and no fish meal, and the last diet contained 10.75% torula yeast, no fish meal, and no plasma protein. The inclusion of torula yeast was calculated to replace the amount of digestible Lys provided by fish meal, plasma protein, or both fish meal and plasma protein in the control diet. During the initial 14 d, fecal scores were visually assessed. At the end of phase 1, blood samples were collected and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), peptide YY, immunoglobulin G, total protein, and albumin were analyzed. Results indicated that torula yeast could replace fish meal and plasma protein without affecting growth performance, fecal scores, or blood characteristics of pigs. In exp. 2, 160 weanling pigs (6.11 ± 0.62 kg) were allotted to one of four diets with five pigs per pen and eight replicate pens per diet. Phase 1 diets contained 0%, 10%, 18%, or 26% torula yeast, whereas phase 2 diets contained 0%, 8%, 14%, or 20% torula yeast. Torula yeast was included in diets at the expense of animal proteins and soybean meal. On days 14 and 28, blood samples were collected and concentrations of cytokines, BUN, total protein, and albumin were analyzed. Phase 2 gain-to-feed ratio (G:F) linearly increased (P < 0.01) as the concentration of torula yeast increased in the diets. The concentration of albumin on day 14 linearly increased (P < 0.05) and the concentration of TNF-α was linearly reduced (P < 0.01) as the concentration of torula yeast increased in the diets. In conclusion, under the conditions of this research, torula yeast could replace fish meal and plasma protein without affecting the growth performance of pigs, but inclusion of increasing levels of torula yeast improved G:F of pigs, which may be because of greater nutrient utilization.

Effects of a Hatchery Byproduct Mixture on Growth Performance and Digestible Energy of Various Hatchery Byproduct Mixtures in Nursery Pigs

The objectives were to determine effects of a hatchery byproduct mixture (HBM) on growth performance and to measure digestible energy concentrations in various HBM. In the growth performance experiment, 96 pigs (initial body weight = 9.6 ± 0.8 kg) were assigned to 4 dietary treatments in a randomized complete block design with 6 blocks. Each treatment consisted of 6 replicate pens with 4 pigs comprising 2 barrows and 2 gilts. Pigs were fed graded concentrations of HBM at 0%, 3.33%, 6.67%, and 10.00% for 14 days. In the energy digestibility experiment, 10 barrows (initial body weight = 11.5 ± 0.4 kg) were employed to determine digestible energy in HBM. A basal diet based on corn and soybean meal and 4 additional diets containing 25% of 4 different HBM were prepared. The marker-to-marker method was employed for total collection and the experimental design was a replicated 5 × 4 Latins square design. Growth performance was not compromised as the inclusion rate of HBM increased up to 10%. Digestible energy of HBM ranged from 2772 to 3887 kcal/kg as-is basis. In conclusion, HBM can be used in nursery pig diets and different energy values should be used for each HBM.

Torula yeast has greater digestibility of amino acids and phosphorus, but not energy, compared with a commercial source of fish meal fed to weanling pigs

Three experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of AA, concentrations of DE and ME, and the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in a source of torula yeast are not different from values obtained in Menhaden fish meal. In experiment 1, six weanling barrows (initial BW: 11.7 ± 0.4 kg) were prepared with a T-cannula in the distal ileum and allotted to a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design with 3 diets and 3 periods. In each period, there were 5 d of adaptation and 2 d of collection. Two cornstarch-based diets using the torula yeast or fish meal as the sole source of AA and a N-free diet were formulated. The SID of CP and all AA was greater (P < 0.05) in torula yeast than in fish meal. In experiment 2, 24 weanling barrows (initial BW: 14.4 ± 1.1 kg) were individually housed in metabolism crates and allotted to a corn-based diet or 2 diets based on a mixture of corn and torula yeast or corn and fish meal. Feces and urine samples were collected for 4 d following a 5-d adaptation period. There were 8 replicate pigs per diet and fecal and urine materials were collected. Results of this experiment indicated that there were no differences in the concentration of DE and ME (DM basis) between torula yeast and fish meal. In experiment 3, a total of 32 weanling barrows (initial BW: 11.9 ± 1.1 kg) were allotted to 4 diets and 8 replicate pigs per diet. Pigs were placed in individual metabolism crates. The torula yeast or fish meal were used in 2 diets containing either 0 or 500 units of microbial phytase. Feces samples were collected as described for experiment 2. The STTD of P in torula yeast was greater (P < 0.05) than in fish meal, but regardless of ingredient, there was no effect of the inclusion of phytase in the diets. In conclusion, the SID of AA and the STTD of P in torula yeast is greater than in fish meal, but values for the concentration of DE and ME in torula yeast are not different from those in fish meal. Therefore, the torula yeast that was used in the present experiments may be included at the expense of fish meal in diets fed to weanling pigs if the concentration of standardized ileal digestible AA is considered in the formulation.

Effects of Soybean Meal Fermented by Lactobacillus Species and Clostridium butyricum on Growth Performance, Diarrhea Incidence, and Fecal Bacteria in Weaning Piglets

Fermented soybean meal (FSBM) has been widely investigated as a nutritional strategy for reducing the use of fish meal (FM) and antibiotic growth promoters. Microbial fermentation by using bacteria can increase the bioavailability of nutrients and reduce the levels of antinutritional factors in soybean meal (SBM). In this study, we evaluated whether FSBM produced from Lactobacillus species and Clostridium butyricum improves growth performance, diarrhea incidence, and fecal bacteria in weaning piglets. Eighty-four crossbred male piglets with an average initial body weight of 8.36±0.63 kg were randomly allotted to 3 dietary treatments consisting of 7 replicate stalls with 4 piglets each. The dietary treatments were: (1) 3% FM in the diet; (2) 5% FSBM in the diet; and (3) 3% FM in the diet plus 4 mg/kg antibiotic growth promoters (AGP). We determined that growth performance was unaffected in FSBM-fed weaning piglets compared with a FM group. Similar to the AGP group, FSBM supplementation significantly reduced diarrhea incidence in weaning piglets. The number of fecal Lactobacillus species significantly increased in 28-day-old FSBM-fed weaning piglets compared with the other groups. Compared with AGP, FSBM has the highest inhibitory effect on the number of fecal Enterobacteriaceae at 28 d old. Furthermore, serum immunoglobulin G and immunoglobulin A levels in FSBM-fed weaning piglets significantly increased at the same age. These results together indicate that FSBM can replace FM in the diets of weaning piglets without affecting growth performance. Furthermore, similar to AGP, FSBM could improve diarrhea incidence, fecal bacteria, and immunoglobulin levels in weaning piglets. Therefore, SBM fermented by Lactobacillus species and C. butyricum demonstrated high potential for development as swine feed ingredients.

Colonic Microbiota and Metabolites Response to Different Dietary Protein Sources in a Piglet Model

Dietary protein sources have the potential to affect the colon microbiome of piglets that will subsequently have a large impact on metabolic capabilities and hindgut health. This study explored the effects of different protein sources on the growth performance, diarrhea rate, apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of crude protein (CP), colonic mucin chemotypes, colonic microbiome, and microbial metabolites of piglets. Twenty-four piglets were randomly divided into four groups that received isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diets containing either Palbio 50 RD (P50), Soyppt-50% (S50), concentrated degossypolized cottonseed protein (CDCP), or fish meal (FM) as the sole protein source. The experimental diets did not affect the estimated daily gain (EDG), but P50 increased fecal score compared with S50 and CDCP. CDCP increased, but P50 reduced AID of CP in comparison to FM and S50. S50 and CDCP increased the amount of mixed neutral-acidic mucins relative to P50. Venn analysis identified unique OTUs in the P50 (13), CDCP (74), FM (39), and S50 (31) groups. The protein sources did not change the colonic bacterial richness or diversity. High Escherichia abundance in the P50 and FM, great abundant of Lactobacillus in the CDCP, and high Gemmiger abundance in the S50 were found. The CDCP tended to elevate valeric acid and branched chain fatty acid (BCFA) concentrations compared with the other diets. The P50 and FM groups had greater ammonia nitrogen and methylamine contents than the S50 and CDCP groups. There was a positive correlation between the Escherichia and ammonia nitrogen, the Lactobacillus and short chain fatty acid (SCFA), and a negative correlation between the Gemmige and BCFA. These findings suggested short-term feeding of different protein sources did not affect the piglets' growth, but P50 increased the diarrhea rate. Potential pathogenic bacteria and detrimental metabolites appeared in the colons of piglets fed P50 and FM, whereas, beneficial effects were conferred upon piglets fed CDCP and S50, thus indicating that available plant proteins (cotton seed, soy) added to the diets of piglets enhanced colon health by reducing protein fermentation.

Effects of different protein sources completely replacing fish meal in low-protein diet on growth performance, intestinal digestive physiology, and nitrogen digestion and metabolism in nursery pigs

The study compared the effects of selected proteins replacing fish meal in low-protein diets on piglets' growth performance, intestinal digestive physiology, and nitrogen digestion and metabolism. Five reduced CP, amino acid (AA)-supplemented diets containing 4% of either S50, HP300, concentrated degossypolized cottonseed protein (CDCP), P50, or fish meal were assigned to six pens with 11 pigs for a 28-day study period. Compared with fish meal, dietary proteins did not affect growth performance, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of nutrients, serum hormone levels and biochemical parameters, apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of CP and most AA, colonic short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) contents, duodenal and ileal morphology, digestive enzyme activity, and pH in small intestine of piglets. However, HP300, CDCP, and P50 decreased (p < 0.05) fecal N excretion per weight gain. AID of Ile in S50 and HP300 and Glu in P50 were improved (p < 0.05), and AID of Gly in other proteins was reduced (p < 0.05). S50 and P50 lowered (p < 0.05) the contents of colonic isobutyric and isovaleric. S50 and HP300 reduced (p < 0.05) jejunal villus height. CDCP increased (p < 0.05) the pepsin activity in stomach. S50, HP300, and CDCP decreased (p < 0.05) pH in the proximal colon. Overall, the selected proteins could completely replace fish meal in low-protein diet without impairing piglets' growth via maintaining intestinal digestive physiology, and nitrogen digestion and metabolism.

Energy Concentration and Phosphorus Digestibility in Hatchery Byproducts Fed to Nursery Pigs

Simple Summary

There is limited information on nutritional value of hatchery byproducts as a swine feed ingredient. The objective of this study was to determine energy concentrations and phosphorus digestibility of hatchery byproducts fed to nursery pigs. Test ingredients were infertile eggs, unhatched eggs, culled chicks, and a mixture of the three. Culled chicks had the greatest energy concentrations, whereas infertile eggs had the lowest values. The standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus in infertile eggs was greater than that in unhatched eggs, culled chicks, and the mixture. Based on the current results, feed formulation would be possible when using hatchery byproducts in swine diets.

Abstract

The objective was to measure energy concentrations and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of phosphorus (P) in hatchery byproducts. In Experiment 1, 20 nursery barrows were used to measure energy concentrations in hatchery byproducts. A basal diet based on corn and dried whey and four additional diets containing 25% of infertile eggs, unhatched eggs, culled chicks, or a mixture of the three hatchery byproducts were prepared. In Experiment 2, the STTD of P was measured using 20 nursery barrows. Four diets containing 25% of the same hatchery byproducts used in Experiment 1 as the sole source of P were prepared, and a P-free diet was prepared to measure basal endogenous losses of P. The marker-to-marker method was employed for total collection. Metabolizable energy in culled chicks was the greatest (4560 kcal/kg as-is basis; p < 0.05), whereas infertile eggs had the lowest value (2645 kcal/kg as-is basis; p < 0.05). The STTD of P in infertile eggs (81.7%) was greater than that in unhatched eggs, culled chicks, and the mixture (61.6, 53.9, and 47.4%, respectively; p < 0.05). In conclusion, culled chicks had the greatest metabolizable energy and infertile eggs had the greatest phosphorus digestibility among the test ingredients.

Different dietary protein sources in low protein diets regulate colonic microbiota and barrier function in a piglet model

Protein fermentation has an adverse effect on colonic health; high-quality proteins and reducing the protein level (protein restriction) can effectively decrease the amount of proteins flowing into the colon for microbial protein fermentation.

Effects of supplemental L-methionine on growth performance and redox status of turkey poults compared with the use of DL-methionine

This study was conducted to test the effects of dietary supplementation of feed grade L-Met on growth performance and redox status of turkey poults compared with the use of conventional DL-Met. Three hundred and eighty five newly hatched turkey poults were weighed and allotted to 5 treatments in a completely randomized design and the birds were fed dietary treatments for 28 d, including a basal diet (BD), the BD + 0.17 or 0.33% DL-Met or L-Met (representing 60, 75, and 90% of the requirement by National Research Council (NRC) for S containing AA, respectively). Increasing Met supplementation from 0 to 0.33% increased (P < 0.05) weight gain (690 to 746 g) and feed intake (1,123 to 1,248 g) of turkey poults. Supplementing L-Met tended (P = 0.053) to reduce feed to gain ratio (1.70 to 1.63) compared with DL-Met. The relative bioavailability of L-Met to DL-Met was 160% based on a multilinear regression analysis of weight gain. Supplementing Met regardless of its sources decreased (P < 0.05) malondialdehyde (3.29 to 2.47 nmol/mg protein) in duodenal mucosa compared with birds in the BD. Supplementing L-Met tended (P = 0.094) to decrease malondialdehyde (1.27 to 1.16 nmol/mg protein) and increase glutathione (3.21 to 3.45 nmol/mg protein) in the liver compared with DL-Met. Total antioxidant capacity, protein carbonyl, and morphology of duodenum and jejunum were not affected by Met sources. In conclusion, dietary supplementation of 0.33% Met to a diet with S containing AA meeting 60% of the NRC requirement enhanced weight gain, feed intake, and redox status by reducing oxidative stress in the gut and liver of turkey poults during the first 28 d of age. Use of L-Met tended to enhance feed efficiency and was more effective in reducing oxidative stress and increasing glutathione in the liver compared with the use of DL-Met. The use of L-Met as a source of Met replacing DL-Met seems to be beneficial to turkey poults during the first 28 d of age.

Evaluating the effects of fish meal source and level on growth performance of nursery pigs. Transl Anim Sci 2018;2:144-155. [PMID: 32704698 DOI: 10.1093/tas/txy010]

Three experiments were conducted to determine the effects of fish meal source on nursery pig growth performance. In experiment 1, 250 pigs (PIC 327 × 1,050, initially 7.1 ± 1.00 kg) were fed either a corn-soybean meal-based diet, a diet containing 8.3% enzymatically treated soybean meal (HP 300, Hamlet Protein, Findlay, OH), or diets containing 6% fish meal from one of three sources (IPC 790, The Scoular Company, Minneapolis, MN; Special Select Menhaden, Omega Proteins, Houston, TX; LT Prime Menhaden, Daybrook Fisheries Inc., New Orleans, LA; source 1, 2, and 3, respectively). In a completely randomized design, there were five pigs per pen and 10 pens per treatment with diets fed for 13 d. There was no evidence for differences in ADG or ADFI among pigs fed the three fish meal sources; however, pigs fed source 1 had marginally decreased (P = 0.068) G:F compared with pigs fed diets with other protein sources. In experiment 2, 350 barrows (DNA Line 200 × 400; initially 6.5 ± 0.90 kg) were assigned to one of seven dietary treatments including the same control diet and diets containing the three fish meal sources used in experiment 1, but fed at 3% or 6%. There were five pigs per pen and 10 pens per treatment with diets fed for 14 d. A source × level interaction (linear, P < 0.05) for ADG and G:F was observed. Increasing fish meal source 1 increased ADG and G:F; however, pigs fed source 2 had improved ADG and G:F at 3%, but decreased performance at 6% compared with control pigs. Pigs fed source 3 had no further improvements in ADG or G:F beyond the 3% inclusion. Fishmeal analysis for total volatile N, and modified Torry digestibility did not appear to correspond with any growth performance differences measured in experiments 1 or 2. In experiment 3, 700 barrows (DNA Line 200 × 400, initially 6.5 ± 0.84 kg) were fed a control diet or four diets with 6% fish meal (source 3) containing either 0.87%, 8.70%, 16.52%, or 24.35% fish solubles. There were five pigs per pen and 28 pens per treatment with diets fed for 21 d. Overall, pigs fed diets with fish meal had increased (P < 0.05) ADG and ADFI compared with pigs fed the control diet. There was no evidence for differences in growth performance as fish solubles increased. In conclusion, inconsistencies were observed in growth responses to different fish meal sources, but the amount of fish solubles, total volatile N, or modified Torry digestibility of fishmeal does not appear to explain these differences.

Apparent ileal digestibility of nutrients and amino acids in soybean meal, fish meal, spray-dried plasma protein and fermented soybean meal to weaned pigs

This study sought to determine whether fermentation could increase apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of dry matter (DM), nitrogen (N), energy (E) and amino acids (AA) in fermented soybean meal (FSBM) greater than that of soybean meal (SBM) in weaned pigs. Four weaned pigs (10.00 ± 0.30 kg) were surgically equipped with T-cannulas and randomly followed a 4 × 4 Latin square design of treatments (SBM, FSBM, fish meal and spray-dried plasma protein). Overall, the fermentation process was able to reduce the amount of anti-nutritional factors (ANF), including trypsin inhibitors, raffinose and stachyose, in the FSBM diet, which were significantly reduced by 39.4, 92.2, and 92.9%, respectively, as compared to the SBM diet. As a consequence of ANF reduction in FSBM, the AID of DM, N and E as well as AA was significantly greater with FSBM than SBM. Taken all together, the fermentation process improved the nutritional quality of SBM, due to ANF reduction, leading to improvement of digestibility of AA. As such, FSBM can be potentially used as a specialized feed ingredient, especially for young animal diets in an attempt to reduce diet costs.

Effects of feed grade L-methionine on intestinal redox status, intestinal development, and growth performance of young chickens compared with conventional DL-methionine

This study was conducted to test the effects of supplemental L-Met on redox status, gut development, and growth performance of young broiler chickens compared with DL-Met. A total of 888 (half male and half female) 1-d-old Ross 308 chickens were weighed and randomly allotted to 7 treatments in a randomized complete block design for 21 d, including a basal diet (BD), the BD + 0.095% L-Met or DL-Met, the BD + 0.190% L-Met or DL-Met, and the BD + 0.285% L-Met or DL-Met (representing 60, 70, 80, and 90% of the Met + Cys requirement). Feed disappearance and BW were recorded every 7 d. Liver and duodenum samples were collected on d 0, 7, and 21 to measure redox status and intestine morphology. On d 7, chicks fed a diet supplemented with either 0.285% L-Met or 0.285% DL-Met had increased (P < 0.05) concentrations of glutathione (GSH) and reduced (P < 0.05) protein carbonyl (PC) and malonedialdehyde contents in duodenum mucosa compared with chicks fed the BD. Chicks fed a diet supplemented with 0.285% L-Met had greater (P < 0.05) villus width compared with chicks fed a diet supplemented with 0.285% DL-Met. Chicks fed a diet supplemented with 0.285% L-Met had lower (P < 0.05) crypt depth and greater (P < 0.05) villus height:crypt depth ratio compared with chicks fed a diet supplemented with 0.285% DL-Met or the BD. On d 21, chicks fed a diet supplemented with 0.285% L-Met had increased (P < 0.01) concentrations of GSH and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) but reduced (P < 0.05) PC content in duodenum mucosa compared with chicks fed a diet supplemented with 0.285% DL-Met and the BD. Chicks fed a diet supplemented with 0.285% L-Met had greater (P < 0.05) villus height compared with chicks fed the BD. During the entire 21-d supplementation of either L-Met or DL-Met, ADG and G:F were enhanced (P < 0.01) compared with chicks fed the BD. Chicks fed diets supplemented with L-Met had greater (P < 0.05) ADG and G:F than chicks fed diets supplemented with DL-Met. The relative bioavailability of L-Met to DL-Met for ADG and G:F was 138.2 and 140.7%, respectively. Overall, supplementation of either L-Met or DL-Met has beneficial effects on villus development in association with increased GSH production and levels of TAC and reduced protein oxidation in duodenum. Supplementation of L-Met served a better function on redox status and development of the gut of chicks compared with DL-Met. Chicks fed diets with L-Met had better growth response than chicks fed diets with DL-Met.

Effect of feed grade L-methionine on growth performance and gut health in nursery pigs compared with conventional DL-methionine

Two experiments were conducted to test if supplementation of LMET has beneficial effects on growth performance and gut health in nursery pigs compared with DL-Met. In Exp. 1, 168 pigs in 56 pens were randomly allotted to 7 dietary treatments for 20 d, including a basal diet (BD; 55% of the NRC requirement for Met), the BD+0.048% L-Met or DL-Met (70% of the NRC requirement), the BD+0.096% L-Met or DL-Met (85% of the NRC requirement), and the BD+0.144% L-Met or DL-Met (100% of the NRC requirement). Body weight and feed disappearance were recorded every 5 d for computation of growth performance. In Exp. 2, 20 individually housed nursery pigs were randomly allotted to 2 dietary treatments for 20 d: DML (0.16% Met from the BD+0.145% supplemental DL-Met) or LMET (0.16% Met from the BD+0.145% supplemental L-Met). Both diets had Met meeting 95% of the NRC requirement. Duodenum samples from all pigs were collected at the end of the trial to evaluate morphology and redox status. In Exp. 1, during the entire 20 d, pigs fed diets supplemented with L-Met tended to have greater (P=0.087) ADG and reduced (P<0.01) plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) than pigs fed diets supplemented with DL-Met. The relative bioavailability (RBA) of L-Met to DL-Met for ADG and G:F was 143.8 and 122.7%, respectively. In Exp. 2, pigs fed a diet supplemented with L-Met had duodenum tissue with greater (P<0.05) concentrations of glutathione (GSH) and greater villus height and width as well as lower (P<0.05) concentrations of protein carbonyl compared with pigs fed DL-Met. Overall, compared with DL-Met, the use of L-Met as a source of supplemental Met in nursery pig diets enhanced duodenum villus development in association with reduced oxidative stress and improved GSH. The beneficial effects of supplementing L-Met compared to DL-Met in gut of nursery pigs resulted in a potential enhancement of ADG and reduction of PUN.

Comparative efficacy of up to 50% partial fish meal replacement with fermented soybean meal or enzymatically prepared soybean meal on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and fecal microflora in weaned pigs

This study was conducted to determine the comparative efficacy of partial fish meal (FM) replacement (up to 50%) with fermented soybean meal (FSBM; SoELAB, PepSoyGen and Soytide) or enzymatically prepared SBM (HP 300) on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and fecal microflora in weaned pigs. A total of 100 weaned pigs (body weight 6.59 ± 0.29 kg) were used in experimental feeding trials, lasting for up to 6 weeks, and were randomly allotted to five groups with four block replicates of five pigs per pen serving as one block. Dietary treatments were as follows: (i) 100% FM, (ii) 50% FM + 50% SoELAB-54, (iii) 50% FM + 50% PepSoyGen, (iv) 50% FM + 50% Soytide and (v) 50% FM + 50% HP 300. Concerning growth performance, none of the treated SBM preparations demonstrated any significantly different effect compared with FM treatment. With respect to nutrient digestibility, SoELAB and HP 300 treatments demonstrated no significant difference compared with FM treatment. Lastly, none of the SBM preparations demonstrated any significant differences in animal fecal score and all of the differentially treated SBM increased fecal Lactobacillus counts, while maintaining similar Escherichia coli counts compared with FM treatment.

Energy concentration and phosphorus digestibility in yeast products produced from the ethanol industry, and in brewers' yeast, fish meal, and soybean meal fed to growing pigs

Two experiments were conducted to determine the DE, ME, and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in 2 novel sources of yeast (C-yeast and S-yeast) and in brewers' yeast, fish meal, and soybean meal fed to growing pigs. The 2 new sources of yeast are coproducts from the dry-grind ethanol industry. The concentrations of DM, GE, and P were 94.8%, 5,103 kcal/kg, and 1.07% in C-yeast; 94.4%, 4,926 kcal/kg, and 2.01% in S-yeast; 93.6%, 4,524 kcal/kg, and 1.40% in brewers' yeast; 91.4%, 4,461 kcal/kg, and 3.26% in fish meal; and 87.7%, 4,136 kcal/kg, and 0.70% in soybean meal, respectively. The DE and ME in each of the ingredients were determined using 42 growing barrows (28.9±2.18 kg BW). A corn-based basal diet and 5 diets containing corn and 24% to 40% of each test ingredient were formulated. The total collection method was used to collect feces and urine, and the difference procedure was used to calculate values for DE and ME in each ingredient. The concentrations of DE in corn, C-yeast, S-yeast, brewers' yeast, fish meal, and soybean meal were 4,004, 4,344, 4,537, 4,290, 4,544, and 4,362 kcal/kg DM (SEM=57), respectively, and the ME values were 3,879, 3,952, 4,255, 3,771, 4,224, and 4,007 kcal/kg DM (SEM=76), respectively. The ME in S-yeast and fish meal were greater (P<0.05) than the ME in corn and brewers' yeast, whereas the ME in C-yeast and soybean meal were not different from those of any of the other ingredients. The STTD of P in the 5 ingredients was determined using 42 barrows (28.3±7.21 kg BW) that were placed in metabolism cages. Five diets were formulated to contain each test ingredient as the sole source of P, and a P-free diet was used to estimate the basal endogenous loss of P. Feces were collected for 5 d using the marker to marker method after a 5-d adaptation period. The STTD of P in brewers' yeast (85.2%) was greater (P<0.05) than the STTD of P in all the other ingredients except S-yeast (75.7%). The STTD of P in C-yeast (73.9%) was not different from the STTD of P in S-yeast and fish meal (67.3%) but was greater (P<0.05) than the STTD of P in soybean meal (56.7%). In conclusion, the 2 novel sources of yeast contain similar or greater concentrations of energy compared with brewers' yeast, corn, fish meal, and soybean meal, and the STTD of P in the 2 yeast products is not different from the STTD of P in fish meal.

Effects of single cell protein replacing fish meal in diet on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and intestinal morphology in weaned pigs

Three experiments were conducted to evaluate the ME value, standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) of fish meal, and the effects of single cell protein (Prosin and Protide) replacing fish meal in diet on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and intestinal morphology in weaned piglets. In Exp. 1, twenty-four barrows with initial BW of 30.8±2.6 kg were allotted to one of four dietary treatments. Diet 1 contained corn as the only energy source. The other three diets replaced 20% of the corn in diet 1 with one of the three protein feeds (fish meal, Prosin and Protide), and the DE and ME contents were determined by difference. In Exp. 2, eight barrows (initial BW of 25.6±3.2 kg) were fitted with ileal T-cannulas and allotted to a replicated 4×4 Latin square design. Three cornstarch-based diets were formulated using each of the protein feeds as the sole source of AA. A nitrogen-free diet was also formulated to measure endogenous losses of AA. In Exp. 3, one hundred and eighty piglets (initial BW of 7.95±1.59 kg) weaned at 28±2 d were blocked by weight and assigned to one of five treatments for a 28-d growth performance study, each treatment was fed to six pens with six pigs (three barrows and three gilts) per pen. The five treatments consisted of the control group (CON), which was a corn-soybean meal diet containing 5% fish meal, and the other four treatments, which replaced a set amount of fish meal with either Prosin (2.5% or 5%) or Protide (2.5% or 5%). The diets were formulated to provide same nutrient levels. The results showed that on a DM basis, both of the DE and ME contents were lower in Prosin and Protide than that of fish meal (p<0.05). The SID of CP and all essential AA were greater in fish meal than in Prosin and Protide (p<0.05). The pigs fed CON diet had greater weight gain and lower feed conversion rate (FCR) than pigs fed 5% Prosin and 5% Protide diets (p<0.05). The digestibility of CP was greater in pigs fed CON, 2.5% Prosin and 2.5% Protide diets than the pigs fed 5% Prosin and 5% Protide diets (p<0.05). Villus height in jejunum and ileum, and villus height to crypt depth ratio in the jejunum were higher (p<0.05) in pigs fed CON, 2.5% Prosin and 2.5% Protide diets compared with the 5% Prosin and 5% Protide diets. Pigs fed CON diet had greater villus height to crypt depth ratio in the ileum than the pigs fed 5% Prosin and 5% Protide diets (p<0.05). In conclusion, although Prosin and Protide contained lower ME content and SID of AA than fish meal, Prosin and Protide replacing 50% of fish meal in diet with identical nutrient levels could obtain similar performance, nutrient digestibility and intestinal morphology in weaned pigs.

Influence of crude protein content, ingredient complexity, feed form, and duration of feeding of the Phase I diets on productive performance and nutrient digestibility of Iberian pigs

The influence of CP content and ingredient complexity, feed form, and duration of feeding of the Phase I diets on growth performance and total tract apparent digestibility (TTAD) of energy and nutrients was studied in Iberian pigs weaned at 28 d of age. There were 12 dietary treatments with 2 type of feeds (high-quality, HQ; and low-quality, LQ), 2 feed forms (pellets vs. mash), and 3 durations (7, 14, and 21 d) of supply of the Phase I diets. From d 7, 14, or 21 (depending on treatment) to d 35, all pigs received a common diet in mash form. Each treatment was replicated 3 times (6 pigs/pen). For the entire experiment, ADG (P < 0.05) and ADFI (P < 0.01) were less with the HQ than the LQ Phase I diets, but G:F was not affected. Pelleting of the Phase I diets did not affect ADG but improved G:F (P < 0.01). Feeding the Phase I diets from d 0 to 21 improved G:F (P < 0.05) but decreased ADG (P < 0.01) as compared with 7 or 14 d of feeding. Postweaning diarrhea (PWD) tended to be greater (P = 0.06) for pigs fed the HQ diets than pigs fed the LQ diets and pigs fed pellets than those fed mash (P < 0.001). Also, PWD was greater for pigs fed the Phase I diet for 14 or 21 d than those fed the diet for 7 d (P < 0.01). From d 0 to 21, ADG and G:F were not affected (P > 0.10) by feed quality, but feeding pellets or increasing the duration of feeding the Phase I diets improved G:F (P < 0.01). Also, in this period, PWD was greater with pellets than with mash and for pigs fed the Phase I diets for 14 or 21 d than for pigs fed the diet for only 7 d (P < 0.01). From d 21 to 35, pigs previously fed the LQ diet had greater ADG than pigs fed the HQ Phase I diets (P < 0.001). Also, pigs fed the Phase I diets for 21 d had decreased ADG (P < 0.05) and ADFI (P < 0.001) and reduced G:F (P < 0.05) than pigs fed these diets for 7 or 14 d. Organic matter digestibility was greater for pigs fed the HQ Phase I diets than pigs fed the LQ Phase I diets (P < 0.05). Pelleting improved TTAD of all nutrients (P < 0.01). It is concluded that HQ Phase I diets increased TTAD of nutrients but not feed efficiency of Iberian pigs from d 0 to 35. Also, pelleting improved energy and nutrient digestibility and feed efficiency. Increasing the duration of supply of the Phase I diets from 7 to 21 d improved feed efficiency but reduced ADG. Therefore, the use of LQ Phase I diets in pellet form for no more than 7 d after weaning is recommended in Iberian pigs.

The effect of supplementing organic diets with fish meal and premix on the performance of pigs and some meat and blood characteristics

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of fish meal and mineral-vitamin premix, supplementing organic diets, on the performance of pigs and some meat and blood characteristics. The experiment was conducted on an organic pig fattening farm. The study involved 120 pigs with an approximate 25 kg body weight. Animals were divided into 3 groups, kept in pens, 10 animals each. Group I (control) animals were fed with plant feedstuffs of organic origin. Diets for group II and III were enriched with fish meal or fish meal and vitamin-mineral premix, respectively. The experiment was carried out till pigs reached a weight of 115 kg. Feed samples were subjected to laboratory analyses. Body weight (3 times) and feed intake were recorded. Blood samples were collected (2 times) to determine hematological and biochemical indices. Some parameters in meat samples were also determined. The fish meal addition improved (P < or = 0.05) the average daily gains as well as feed conversion ratio during fattening period and mineral-vitamin premix significantly (P < or = 0.05) fortified fish meal influence. Fish meal supplement improved (P < or = 0.05) also some carcass characteristics. Supplementation of the diet with premix additionally decreased (P < or = 0.05) backfat thickness and increased share of meat in carcass. Fish meal improved (P < or = 0.05) some meat characteristics and elevated content of some polyunsaturated fatty acids. An increase in hemoglobin, red blood cell, white blood cell and cholesterol level in blood of animals from both experimental groups were also found. The results obtained proved the usefulness of fish meal and mineral-vitamin premix in the fatteners nutrition based on organic diets.

Ileal digestibility of amino acids in conventional, fermented, and enzyme-treated soybean meal and in soy protein isolate, fish meal, and casein fed to weanling pigs

An experiment was conducted to determine the apparent (AID) and standardized (SID) ileal digestibility of CP and AA in weanling pigs of 4 soybean products, fish meal, and casein. The 4 soybean products were conventional dehulled soybean meal (SBM), soy protein isolate (SPI), fermented soybean meal (FSBM), and enzyme-treated soybean meal (ESBM). Seven weanling barrows (initial BW: 10.9 +/- 2.3 kg) were individually fitted with a T-cannula in the distal ileum. The barrows were allotted to a 7 x 7 Latin square design with 7 diets and seven 7-d periods. Six cornstarch-based diets were prepared using each of the protein sources as the sole source of CP and AA. An N-free diet was used to measure basal endogenous losses of CP and AA. Results showed that except for Lys, the AID and SID of AA in FSBM was not different from SBM, and with a few exceptions, the AID and SID of most AA in SBM, FSBM, and ESBM were not different from each other and from the AID and SID of AA in fish meal. Likewise, the AID and SID of AA in ESBM and SPI were not different, but the AID and SID of most AA in SPI were greater (P < 0.05) than in SBM and FSBM. The AID and SID of most AA in SPI were not different from the AID and SID of AA in casein. In conclusion, FSBM and ESBM had similar SID of most AA as SBM, but SPI has the greatest SID of AA among the 4 soybean products. Casein had the greatest SID of AA among the protein sources studied.

Effects of fermented soybean meal and specialty animal protein sources on nursery pig performance

In 2 experiments, 602 pigs were used to evaluate the effects of fish meal, fermented soybean meal, or dried porcine solubles on phase 2 nursery pig performance. In Exp. 1, nursery pigs (n = 252; PIC TR4 x 1050; 6.8 kg initial BW and 7 d after weaning) were fed: 1) a control diet containing no specialty protein sources and the control diet with 2) 5% fish meal, 3) 3.5% dried porcine solubles, 4) 6.0% fermented soybean meal, 5) a combination of 1.75% fermented soybean meal and 1.75% dried porcine solubles, or 6) a combination of 3.0% fermented soybean meal and 2.5% fish meal. There were 7 replications with 6 pigs per pen. Experimental diets were fed for 14 d, and then all pigs were fed a common diet without specialty protein sources for 14 d. From d 0 to 14, pigs fed dried porcine solubles alone or with fermented soybean meal had improved (P < 0.05) ADG and G:F compared with pigs fed all other diets. Overall (d 0 to 28), pigs fed dried porcine solubles had improved (P = 0.01) ADG (421 vs. 383 g) and G:F (0.77 vs. 0.73) compared with pigs fed the control diet and had improved (P = 0.03) G:F (0.77 vs. 0.74) compared with pigs fed the combination of fermented soybean meal and fish meal. In Exp. 2, nursery pigs (n = 350; PIC C22 x 1050; 6.1 kg initial BW and 7 d after weaning) were fed 1) a control diet containing no specialty protein sources and the control diet with 2) 3% fish meal, 3) 6% fish meal, 4) 3.75% fermented soybean meal, 5) 7.50% fermented soybean meal, 6) a combination of 1.88% fermented soybean meal and 1.88% dried porcine solubles, or 7) a combination of 3.75% fermented soybean meal and 3.75% dried porcine solubles. There were 10 replications with 5 pigs per pen. Experimental diets were fed from d 0 to 14, and then all pigs were fed a common diet without specialty protein sources for 21 d. From d 0 to 14, pigs fed increasing fish meal had increased (quadratic, P = 0.05) ADFI. Pigs fed increasing fermented soybean meal had improved (quadratic, P = 0.01) G:F. Pigs fed the combination of fermented soybean meal and dried porcine solubles had improved (P < 0.05) ADG and G:F compared with pigs fed diets containing fish meal and had improved (P < 0.05) ADG and ADFI compared with pigs fed diets containing fermented soybean meal. Overall (d 0 to 35), pigs fed diets with increasing amounts of fermented soybean meal had improved (quadratic, P = 0.03) G:F. Feeding nursery pigs diets containing dried porcine solubles, either alone or in combination with fermented soybean meal, can improve growth performance compared with those fed high concentrations of soybean meal or fish meal.

Standardised ileal crude protein and amino acid digestibilities in protein supplements for piglets

Standardised ileal digestibilities (SID) of crude protein and amino acids (AA) originating from 24 different feed ingredients, including 11 feed ingredients produced from soybeans, seven by-products of starch processing, four whey products and two fish meals, were determined in piglets by means of the difference method. For the indispensable AA, the highest SID values were obtained in three out of four whey proteins (SID ≥90% for most indispensable AA), one out of two fish meals (SID ≥86%), soy protein concentrate, hydrolysed soy protein isolate (SID ≥86% for most indispensable AA), and by-products of starch processing (SID ≥84% for most indispensable AA). The lowest SID values were obtained in extruded soybeans and microbially fermented soy protein (SID ≤78% for most indispensable AA), whereas the SID values for high-protein soybean meal were intermediate (SID 80-89% for indispensable AA except for Thr). The SID values in the three enzymatically fermented soy proteins (SID 80-94% for most indispensable AA) were similar to those in high-protein soybean meal and soy protein concentrate. The results of the present study indicate that SID values of AA in feed ingredients for piglets differ considerably from those reported for grower-finisher pigs, thus there may be a need for separate feed tables for piglets.