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Lévy F. The Onset of Maternal Behavior in Sheep and Goats: Endocrine, Sensory, Neural, and Experiential Mechanisms. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2022; 27:79-117. [PMID: 36169813 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-97762-7_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In sheep and goats, the onset of maternal behavior at parturition is characterized by a first phase called maternal responsiveness during which the mother is attracted to any newborn. In a second phase, called maternal selectivity, the mother establishes a selective bond with her young so that she only accepts it at suckling. After a description of the behavioral expression of both phases, this chapter reviews the physiological, sensory, and neural mechanisms involved. These two behavioral processes are synchronized with parturition by the vaginocervical stimulation induced by the expulsion of the newborn. Olfactory cues provided by the neonate are involved in maternal responsiveness and selectivity. Oxytocin supported by estrogens is the key factor for maternal responsiveness. The neural network involved in maternal responsiveness is mainly hypothalamic and is different from the circuitry involved in selectivity, which mainly concerns olfactory processing regions. Visual and auditory cues are necessary for offspring recognition at a distance. This multisensory recognition suggests that mothers form a mental image of their young. Maternal experience renders mothers more responsive to maternally relevant physiology and to young-related sensory inputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Lévy
- CNRS, IFCE, INRAE, Université de Tours, PRC, F-37380, Nouzilly, France.
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Rørvang MV, Nielsen BL, Herskin MS, Jensen MB. Prepartum Maternal Behavior of Domesticated Cattle: A Comparison with Managed, Feral, and Wild Ungulates. Front Vet Sci 2018; 5:45. [PMID: 29594159 PMCID: PMC5857534 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The event of giving birth is an essential part of animal production. In dairy cattle production, there are substantial economical and welfare-related challenges arising around the time of parturition, and hence increased focus on efficient management of the calving cow. Drawing on the research literature on prepartum maternal behavior, this review compares cattle to other members of the ungulate clade with the aim of understanding the biological basis of bovine prepartum behavior with main emphasis on dairy cows. Ultimately, this knowledge may be used in future development of housing systems and recommendations for the management of calving cows. Maternal prepartum behavior varies among species, but the final goal of ungulate mothers is the same: ensuring a calm parturition and optimal environment for the onset of postpartum maternal behavior by locating an appropriate birth site, with low risk of predators, disturbances and mistaken identity of offspring. Features of chosen birth sites vary among species and depend largely on the environment, as ungulate females display a considerable ability to adapt to their surroundings. However, within commercial housing conditions in dairy production, the animals’ ability to adapt behaviorally appears to be challenged. Confinement alongside high stocking densities leave little room to express birth-site selection behavior, posing a high risk of agonistic social behavior, disturbances, and mismothering, as well as exposure to olfactory cues influencing both prepartum and postpartum maternal behavior. Dairy cows are thus exposed to several factors in a commercial calving environment, which may thwart their maternal motivations and influence their behavior. In addition, prepartum cattle may be more affected by olfactory cues than other ungulate species (e.g., sheep) because they are attracted to birth fluids already before calving. Hence, providing dairy cows with an environment where they can perform the maternal behavior they are motivated for, may aid a calm and secure calving and provide optimal surroundings for postpartum maternal behavior. Future research should focus on designing motivation-based housing systems allowing freedom to express prepartum maternal behavior and investigate in more detail the effects of the environment on the welfare of calving cows and their offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Birte L Nielsen
- INRA, NeuroBiologie de l'Olfaction, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France.,INRA, Modélisation Systémique Appliquée aux Ruminants, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Paris, France
| | - Mette S Herskin
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark
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Lonstein JS, Lévy F, Fleming AS. Common and divergent psychobiological mechanisms underlying maternal behaviors in non-human and human mammals. Horm Behav 2015; 73:156-85. [PMID: 26122301 PMCID: PMC4546863 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2015] [Revised: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Maternal interactions with young occupy most of the reproductive period for female mammals and are absolutely essential for offspring survival and development. The hormonal, sensory, reward-related, emotional, cognitive and neurobiological regulators of maternal caregiving behaviors have been well studied in numerous subprimate mammalian species, and some of the importance of this body of work is thought to be its relevance for understanding similar controls in humans. We here review many of the important biopsychological influences on maternal behaviors in the two best studied non-human animals, laboratory rats and sheep, and directly examine how the conceptual framework established by some of the major discoveries in these animal "models" do or do not hold for our understanding of human mothering. We also explore some of the limits for extrapolating from non-human animals to humans. We conclude that there are many similarities between non-human and human mothers in the biological and psychological factors influencing their early maternal behavior and that many of the differences are due to species-characteristic features related to the role of hormones, the relative importance of each sensory system, flexibility in what behaviors are exhibited, the presence or absence of language, and the complexity of cortical function influencing caregiving behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph S Lonstein
- Neuroscience Program, 108 Giltner Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; Department of Psychology, 108 Giltner Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
| | - Frédéric Lévy
- Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, INRA-CNRS-Université de Tours IFCE, Nouzilly 37380, France.
| | - Alison S Fleming
- Fraser Mustard Institute for Human Development, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, 3359 Mississauga Road, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada.
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Corona R, Lévy F. Chemical olfactory signals and parenthood in mammals. Horm Behav 2015; 68:77-90. [PMID: 25038290 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2014] [Revised: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This article is part of a Special Issue "Chemosignals and Reproduction". In mammalian species, odor cues emitted by the newborn are essential to establish maternal behavior at parturition and coordinate early mother-infant interactions. Offspring odors become potent attractive stimuli at parturition promoting the contact with the young to ensure that normal maternal care develops. In some species odors provide a basis for individual recognition of the offspring and highly specialized neural mechanisms for learning the infant signals have evolved. Both the main and the accessory olfactory systems are involved in the onset of maternal care, but only the former contributes to individual odor discrimination of the young. Electrophysiological and neurochemical changes occur in the main olfactory bulb leading to a coding of the olfactory signature of the familiar young. Olfactory neurogenesis could also contribute to motherhood and associated learning. Parturition and interactions with the young influence neurogenesis and some evidence indicates a functional link between olfactory neurogenesis and maternal behavior. Although a simple compound has been found which regulates anogenital licking in the rat, studies identifying the chemical nature of these odors are lacking. Neonatal body odors seem to be particularly salient to human mothers who are able to identify their infant's odors. Recent studies have revealed some neural processing of these cues confirming the importance of mother-young chemical communication in our own species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Corona
- INRA, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, F-37380 Nouzilly, France; CNRS, UMR 7247, F-37380 Nouzilly, France; Université François Rabelais, F-37041 Tours, France; Haras Nationaux, F-37380 Nouzilly, France
| | - Frédéric Lévy
- INRA, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, F-37380 Nouzilly, France; CNRS, UMR 7247, F-37380 Nouzilly, France; Université François Rabelais, F-37041 Tours, France; Haras Nationaux, F-37380 Nouzilly, France.
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Maternal behaviour and lamb survival: from neuroendocrinology to practical application. Animal 2014; 8:102-12. [DOI: 10.1017/s1751731113001614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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Ward SJ, Liste G, Tinarwo A. Attitudes of UK sheep farmers towards fostering methods: A national survey. Small Rumin Res 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2011.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Abstract
AbstractIt has been suggested that the induction of maternal behaviour in non-pregnant ewes by treatment with oestrogen and progesterone followed by artificial, mechanical vaginocervical stimulation (VCS), could be used to produce foster mothers for orphan or triplet lambs. To investigate the reliability of the technique, 46 non-pregnant sheep of two breeds (Suffolk (S) and Scottish Blackface (BF)) and two levels of experience (nulliparous (N) and multiparous (M)) were used. All ewes were given 6 weeks of treatment with vaginal sponges containing oestradiol and progesterone, followed by 2 min of VCS and exposure to a neonatal (< 2 days old) foster lamb. Plasma oestrogen and prolactin concentrations were significantly elevated by the hormonal treatment; prolactin was significantly higher in M ewes compared with N ewes (BFN = 91, SN = 107, BFM = 301, SM = 687 μg/l, P < 0·005). Significant udder development was seen in most ewes (proportionately 1·0 M v. 0·62 N, P = 0·01) and more M ewes produced milk than N ewes (0·67 v. 0·19, P < 0·005). No ewes showed maternal behaviour to the lamb from hormone treatment alone. After VCS, one of 26 N ewes and five of 12 M ewes expressed maternal behaviour. In the M ewes, significantly more S ewes were maternal than BF ewes (proportionately 0·75 SM v. 0·25 BFM, P < 0·05). It is concluded that the technique alone is not sufficiently reliable to be a useful fostering aid. It is suggested, however, that previous exposure to neonatal lambs, handling of ewes before testing and using newborn lambs, may be fruitful areas of investigation to improve the technique.
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Preventing physical interactions between parturient ewes and their neonate differentially impairs the development of maternal responsiveness and selectivity depending on maternal experience. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2009.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Lévy F, Keller M. Chapter 8 Neurobiology of Maternal Behavior in Sheep. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3454(08)00008-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
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Lévy F, Keller M, Poindron P. Olfactory regulation of maternal behavior in mammals. Horm Behav 2004; 46:284-302. [PMID: 15325229 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2004.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2003] [Revised: 02/06/2004] [Accepted: 02/10/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, olfactory cues are extensively used in many aspects of maternal care to ensure the coordination of mother-infant interactions and consequently the normal development of the offspring. Outside the period of parturition and lactation, when the young are not a behavioral priority, olfactory cues play an inhibitory role on maternal responsiveness since in most mammalian species studied so far, nonpregnant females find the odor of young aversive. On the contrary at the time of parturition, a shift in the hedonic value of infantile odors occurs so that the young now become a very potent stimulus and this sensorial processing constitutes an important part of the maternal motivational system. Moreover, infants' odors provide a basis for individual recognition by their mothers and some species (ungulates) have developed highly specialized mechanisms for processing of the infant signals. Perception of the smell of the young also regulates various aspects of maternal behavior. Dodecyl propionate, a compound released by of pup's preputial glands, has been shown to influence anogenital licking behavior, a fundamental pattern of maternal behavior in rodents. While there is no functional specificity of either the main or the accessory olfactory systems in the development of maternal behavior amongst species, it appears that only the main olfactory system is implicated when individual odor discrimination of the young is required. Neural structures, such as the main olfactory bulb, undergo profound changes when exposed to offspring odors at parturition. These changes in synaptic circuitry contribute both to maternal responsiveness to these odors, to their memorization, and to effects of long-term maternal experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Lévy
- Equipe Comportement, Station PRC, UMR 6175 INRA/CNRS/Université de Tours/Haras Nationaux, 37380, Nouzilly, France.
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Léavy F, Porter R, Kendrick K, Keverne E, Romeyer A. Physiological, Sensory, and Experiential Factors of Parental Care in Sheep. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3454(08)60339-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Romeyer A, Poindron P, Porter RH, Levy F, Orgeur P. Establishment of maternal bonding and its mediation by vaginocervical stimulation in goats. Physiol Behav 1994; 55:395-400. [PMID: 8153185 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(94)90153-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the establishment of offspring recognition in mother goats, 11 females were subjected to two successive 5-min tests with their own kid and an alien, 2 h 30 min postpartum. All mothers accepted their own kid, while nine rejected the alien. This suggests that in goats, 2.5 h are sufficient for the development of an exclusive bond with the kid. We also studied the role of physiological factors mediating maternal bonding in this species. Eight of the nine goats that rejected alien kids were, therefore, submitted to 5 min of vaginocervical stimulation (VCS) immediately following the selectivity tests. Of these eight goats, five changed their behavior after VCS and accepted the alien kid (0/8 before VCS vs. 5/8 after VCS, p = 0.031). Thus, VCS appears to reduce rejection behavior towards alien kids while resulting in a significant increase in their rate of acceptance. Underlying physiological mechanisms by which VCS may act are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Romeyer
- Laboratoire de Comportement Animal, URA INRA/CNRS 1291, Nouzilly, France
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Kendrick K, da Costa A, Hinton M, Keverne E. A simple method for fostering lambs using anoestrous ewes with artificially induced lactation and maternal behaviour. Appl Anim Behav Sci 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1591(05)80094-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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