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Gerken KN, Owuor KO, Ndenga B, Wambua S, Winter C, Chemutai S, Omukuti R, Arabu D, Miring’u I, Wilson WC, Mutuku F, Waggoner JJ, Pinsky B, Bosire C, LaBeaud AD. Expanding Understanding of Urban Rift Valley Fever Risk and Associated Vector Ecology at Slaughterhouses in Kisumu, Kenya. Pathogens 2024; 13:488. [PMID: 38921786 PMCID: PMC11206928 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13060488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2024] [Revised: 06/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is an adaptable arbovirus that can be transmitted by a wide variety of arthropods. Widespread urban transmission of RVFV has not yet occurred, but peri-urban outbreaks of RVFV have recently been documented in East Africa. We previously reported low-level exposure in urban communities and highlighted the risk of introduction via live animal influx. We deployed a slaughtered animal testing framework in response to an early warning system at two urban slaughterhouses and tested animals entering the meat value chain for anti-RVFV IgG and IgM antibodies. We simultaneously trapped mosquitoes for RVFV and bloodmeal testing. Out of 923 animals tested, an 8.5% IgG seroprevalence was identified but no evidence of recent livestock exposure was detected. Mosquito species abundance varied greatly by slaughterhouse site, which explained 52% of the variance in blood meals. We captured many Culex spp., a known RVFV amplifying vector, at one of the sites (p < 0.001), and this species had the most diverse blood meals. No mosquito pools tested positive for RVFV antigen using a rapid VecTOR test. These results expand understanding of potential RVF urban disease ecology, and highlight that slaughterhouses are key locations for future surveillance, modelling, and monitoring efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keli Nicole Gerken
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (B.P.); (A.D.L.)
| | - Kevin Omondi Owuor
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Global Health Research, Kisumu 40100, Kenya; (K.O.O.); (B.N.); (C.W.)
| | - Bryson Ndenga
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Global Health Research, Kisumu 40100, Kenya; (K.O.O.); (B.N.); (C.W.)
| | - Sammy Wambua
- Pwani University Biosciences Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi 80108, Kenya; (S.W.); (S.C.); (R.O.); (D.A.); (I.M.)
- Research and Conservation Support Society (RECOURSE), Kilifi 80108, Kenya
- School of Biodiversity One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Christabel Winter
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Global Health Research, Kisumu 40100, Kenya; (K.O.O.); (B.N.); (C.W.)
| | - Salome Chemutai
- Pwani University Biosciences Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi 80108, Kenya; (S.W.); (S.C.); (R.O.); (D.A.); (I.M.)
- Research and Conservation Support Society (RECOURSE), Kilifi 80108, Kenya
| | - Rodney Omukuti
- Pwani University Biosciences Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi 80108, Kenya; (S.W.); (S.C.); (R.O.); (D.A.); (I.M.)
- Research and Conservation Support Society (RECOURSE), Kilifi 80108, Kenya
| | - Daniel Arabu
- Pwani University Biosciences Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi 80108, Kenya; (S.W.); (S.C.); (R.O.); (D.A.); (I.M.)
- Research and Conservation Support Society (RECOURSE), Kilifi 80108, Kenya
| | - Irene Miring’u
- Pwani University Biosciences Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi 80108, Kenya; (S.W.); (S.C.); (R.O.); (D.A.); (I.M.)
- Research and Conservation Support Society (RECOURSE), Kilifi 80108, Kenya
| | - William C. Wilson
- Foreign Arthropod-Borne Animal Disease Research, United States Department of Agriculture-Agriculture Research Service (USDA-ARS), Manhattan, KS 66502, USA;
| | - Francis Mutuku
- Department of Environment and Health Sciences, Technical University of Mombasa, Mombasa 80110, Kenya;
| | - Jesse J. Waggoner
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA;
| | - Benjamin Pinsky
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (B.P.); (A.D.L.)
| | - Carren Bosire
- Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, Technical University of Mombasa, Mombasa 80100, Kenya;
| | - Angelle Desiree LaBeaud
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (B.P.); (A.D.L.)
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Abstract
Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a zoonotic, vector-borne infectious disease of ruminants and camels transmitted mainly by the Aedes and Culex mosquito species. Contact with the blood or organs of infected animals may infect humans. Its etiological factor is the Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) of the Phlebovirus genus and Bunyaviridae family. Sheep and goats are most susceptible to infection and newborns and young individuals endure the most severe disease course. High abortion rates and infant mortality are typical for RVF; its clinical signs are high fever, lymphadenitis, nasal and ocular secretions and vomiting. Conventional diagnosis is done by the detection of specific IgM or IgG antibodies and RVFV nucleic acids and by virus isolation. Inactivated and live-attenuated vaccines obtained from virulent RVFV isolates are available for livestock. RVF is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, but in the last two decades, it was also reported in other African regions. Seropositive animals were detected in Turkey, Tunisia and Libya. The wide distribution of competent vectors in non-endemic areas coupled with global climate change threaten to spread RVF transboundarily. The EFSA considers the movement of infected animals and vectors to be other plausible pathways of RVF introduction into Europe. A very low risk both of introduction of the virus through an infected animal or vector and of establishment of the virus, and a moderate risk of its transmission through these means was estimated for Poland. The risk of these specific modes of disease introduction into Europe is rated as very low, but surveillance and response capabilities and cooperation with the proximal endemic regions are recommended.
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Nielsen SS, Alvarez J, Bicout DJ, Calistri P, Depner K, Drewe JA, Garin-Bastuji B, Rojas JLG, Schmidt CG, Michel V, Chueca MÁM, Roberts HC, Sihvonen LH, Stahl K, Calvo AV, Viltrop A, Winckler C, Bett B, Cetre-Sossah C, Chevalier V, Devos C, Gubbins S, Monaco F, Sotiria-Eleni A, Broglia A, Abrahantes JC, Dhollander S, Stede YVD, Zancanaro G. Rift Valley Fever - epidemiological update and risk of introduction into Europe. EFSA J 2020; 18:e06041. [PMID: 33020705 PMCID: PMC7527653 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a vector-borne disease transmitted by a broad spectrum of mosquito species, especially Aedes and Culex genus, to animals (domestic and wild ruminants and camels) and humans. Rift Valley fever is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa and in the Arabian Peninsula, with periodic epidemics characterised by 5-15 years of inter-epizootic periods. In the last two decades, RVF was notified in new African regions (e.g. Sahel), RVF epidemics occurred more frequently and low-level enzootic virus circulation has been demonstrated in livestock in various areas. Recent outbreaks in a French overseas department and some seropositive cases detected in Turkey, Tunisia and Libya raised the attention of the EU for a possible incursion into neighbouring countries. The movement of live animals is the most important pathway for RVF spread from the African endemic areas to North Africa and the Middle East. The movement of infected animals and infected vectors when shipped by flights, containers or road transport is considered as other plausible pathways of introduction into Europe. The overall risk of introduction of RVF into EU through the movement of infected animals is very low in all the EU regions and in all MSs (less than one epidemic every 500 years), given the strict EU animal import policy. The same level of risk of introduction in all the EU regions was estimated also considering the movement of infected vectors, with the highest level for Belgium, Greece, Malta, the Netherlands (one epidemic every 228-700 years), mainly linked to the number of connections by air and sea transports with African RVF infected countries. Although the EU territory does not seem to be directly exposed to an imminent risk of RVFV introduction, the risk of further spread into countries neighbouring the EU and the risks of possible introduction of infected vectors, suggest that EU authorities need to strengthen their surveillance and response capacities, as well as the collaboration with North African and Middle Eastern countries.
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Ramírez AL, van den Hurk AF, Meyer DB, Ritchie SA. Searching for the proverbial needle in a haystack: advances in mosquito-borne arbovirus surveillance. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:320. [PMID: 29843778 PMCID: PMC5975710 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2901-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Surveillance is critical for the prevention and control of mosquito-borne arboviruses. Detection of elevated or emergent virus activity serves as a warning system to implement appropriate actions to reduce outbreaks. Traditionally, surveillance of arboviruses has relied on the detection of specific antibodies in sentinel animals and/or detection of viruses in pools of mosquitoes collected using a variety of sampling methods. These methods, although immensely useful, have limitations, including the need for a cold chain for sample transport, cross-reactivity between related viruses in serological assays, the requirement for specialized equipment or infrastructure, and overall expense. Advances have recently been made on developing new strategies for arbovirus surveillance. These strategies include sugar-based surveillance, whereby mosquitoes are collected in purpose-built traps and allowed to expectorate on nucleic acid preservation cards which are submitted for virus detection. New diagnostic approaches, such as next-generation sequencing, have the potential to expand the genetic information obtained from samples and aid in virus discovery. Here, we review the advancement of arbovirus surveillance systems over the past decade. Some of the novel approaches presented here have already been validated and are currently being integrated into surveillance programs. Other strategies are still at the experimental stage, and their feasibility in the field is yet to be evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana L Ramírez
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Cairns, QLD, 4870, Australia.
| | - Andrew F van den Hurk
- Public Health Virology, Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, Coopers Plains, QLD, 4108, Australia
| | - Dagmar B Meyer
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Cairns, QLD, 4870, Australia.,Astralian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Cairns, QLD, 4870, Australia
| | - Scott A Ritchie
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Cairns, QLD, 4870, Australia.,Astralian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Cairns, QLD, 4870, Australia
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Racsa LD, Kraft CS, Olinger GG, Hensley LE. Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Diagnostics. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 62:214-9. [PMID: 26354968 DOI: 10.1093/cid/civ792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
There are 4 families of viruses that cause viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF), including Filoviridae. Ebola virus is one virus within the family Filoviridae and the cause of the current outbreak of VHF in West Africa. VHF-endemic areas are found throughout the world, yet traditional diagnosis of VHF has been performed in large reference laboratories centered in Europe and the United States. The large amount of capital needed, as well as highly trained and skilled personnel, has limited the availability of diagnostics in endemic areas except in conjunction with governmental and nongovernmental entities. However, rapid diagnosis of VHF is essential to efforts that will limit outbreaks. In addition, increased global travel suggests VHF diagnoses may be made outside of the endemic areas. Thus, understanding how to diagnose VHF is imperative for laboratories worldwide. This article reviews traditional and current diagnostic modalities for VHF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori D Racsa
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Colleen S Kraft
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Gene G Olinger
- Division of Clinical Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Integrated Research Facility, Frederick, Maryland
| | - Lisa E Hensley
- Division of Clinical Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Integrated Research Facility, Frederick, Maryland
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Hinson JM, Davé S, McMenamy SS, Davé K, Turell MJ. Immuno-Chromatographic Wicking Assay for the Rapid Detection of Chikungunya Viral Antigens in Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2015; 52:699-704. [PMID: 26335477 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjv047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The outbreak of disease caused by chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in 2006 and the recent spread of this virus to the Americas in 2013 indicate the potential for this virus to spread and cause significant disease. However, there are currently no accurate and reliable field-usable, diagnostic methods to provide critical, real-time information for early detection of CHIKV within the vector populations in order to implement appropriate vector control and personal protective measures. In this article, we report the ability of an immuno-chromatographic assay developed by VecTOR Test Systems Inc. to detect CHIKV in a pool of female Aedes mosquitoes containing a single CHIKV-infected mosquito. The CHIKV dipstick assay was simple to use, did not require a cold chain, and provided clear results within 1 h. It was highly specific and did not cross-react with samples spiked with a variety of other alpha, bunya, and flaviviruses. The CHIKV assay can provide real-time critical information on the presence of CHIKV in mosquitoes to public health personnel. Results from this assay will allow a rapid threat assessment and the focusing of vector control measures in high-risk areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanita M Hinson
- Virology Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, MD 21702.
| | - Sonia Davé
- VecTOR Test Systems, Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA 91320
| | - Scott S McMenamy
- Virology Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, MD 21702
| | - Kirti Davé
- VecTOR Test Systems, Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA 91320
| | - Michael J Turell
- Virology Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, MD 21702.
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