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Gozalo AS, Elkins WR. A Review of the Effects of Some Extrinsic Factors on Mice Used in Research. Comp Med 2023; 73:413-431. [PMID: 38217072 PMCID: PMC10752364 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-23-000028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Animals have been used in research for over 2,000 y. From very crude experiments conducted by ancient scholars, animal research, as a science, was refined over hundreds of years to what we know it as today. However, the housing conditions of animals used for research did not improve significantly until less than 100 years ago when guidelines for housing research animals were first published. In addition, it was not until relatively recently that some extrinsic factors were recognized as a research variable, even when animals were housed under recommended guidelines. For example, temperature, humidity, light, noise, vibration, diet, water, caging, bedding, etc., can all potentially affect research using mice, contributing the inability of others to reproduce published findings. Consequently, these external factors should be carefully considered in the design, planning, and execution of animal experiments. In addition, as recommended by others, the housing and husbandry conditions of the animals should be described in detail in publications resulting from animal research to improve study reproducibility. Here, we briefly review some common, and less common, external factors that affect research in one of the most popular animal models, the mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso S Gozalo
- Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - William R Elkins
- Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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2
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Vogt ME, Riesgo VR, Flanigan KAS, Willing JG. Housing Environment Affects Pubertal Onset, Anxiety-like Behavior, and Object Interaction in Male and Female Long Evans Rats. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2022; 61:241-247. [PMID: 35512999 PMCID: PMC9137291 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-21-000119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Rodents used for research can be humanely housed in a variety of ways. As such, a vast number of different housing environments are used, but are often not described in research publications. However, many elements of housing environments, including bedding, diet, water bottles, and cage material, can expose rodents to natural and synthetic compounds that can have lasting effects on the body, brain, and behavior. Some environmental items contain endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), which can affect many commonly assessed physiological and behavioral endpoints in rodents. Here, we compare the effects of 2 commonly used housing environments for male and female Long Evans rats on body weight, pubertal onset, and a battery of behavioral tests measuring activity, anxiety-like behavior, and cognition. One standard environment was comparatively high in EDCs (standard rodent chow, plastic cages, plastic water bottles, and corncob bedding), while the other was a relatively low-EDC environment (phytoestrogen-free chow, polysulfone cages, glass water bottles, and wood-chip bedding). As compared with the Standard group, rats raised in the Low-EDC environment reached puberty earlier, displayed less anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze and open field test, and showed less overall object exploration in the novel object recognition task. These effects occurred only if rats had been raised in these conditions since conception. An acute change from one environment to the other in adulthood did not yield these same effects. These results provide further evidence for the effects of common housing environments on development and behavior and highlight the importance of reporting environmental conditions in the literature to promote reproducibility in research using animal subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan E Vogt
- Department of Psychology: Neural and Cognitive Sciences Program, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio
| | - Victoria R Riesgo
- Department of Psychology: Neural and Cognitive Sciences Program, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio
| | - Kaylyn A S Flanigan
- Department of Psychology: Neural and Cognitive Sciences Program, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio
| | - Jari G Willing
- Department of Psychology: Neural and Cognitive Sciences Program, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio;,
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Rogers HB, Zhou LT, Kusuhara A, Zaniker E, Shafaie S, Owen BC, Duncan FE, Woodruff TK. Dental resins used in 3D printing technologies release ovo-toxic leachates. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 270:129003. [PMID: 33515896 PMCID: PMC7957323 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We recently engineered the first female reproductive tract on a chip (EVATAR), to enable sex-based ex vivo research. To increase the scalability and accessibility of EVATAR, we turned to 3D printing (3DP) technologies, selecting two biocompatible 3DP resins, Dental SG (DSG) and Dental LT (DLT) to generate 3DP microphysiologic platforms. Due to the known sensitivity of reproductive cells to leachable compounds, we first screened for toxicity of these biomaterials using an in vitro mammalian oocyte maturation assay. Culture of mouse oocytes in 3DP plates using conventionally treated DSG resin resulted in rapid oocyte degeneration. Oxygen plasma treatment of the surface of printed DSG resin prevented this degeneration, and the majority of the resulting oocytes progressed through meiosis in vitro. However, 57.0% ± 37.2% of the cells cultured in the DSG resin plates exhibited abnormal chromosome morphology compared to 19.4% ± 17.3% of controls cultured in polystyrene. All tested DLT resin conditions, including plasma treatment, resulted in complete and rapid oocyte degeneration. To identify the ovo-toxic component of DLT, we analyzed DLT leachate using mass spectroscopy. We identified Tinuvin 292, a commercial light stabilizer, as a major component of the DLT leachate, which resulted in a dose-dependent disruption of meiotic progression and increase in chromosomal abnormalities with oocyte exposure, showing significant ovo-toxicity in mammals. Severe reproductive toxicity induced by in vitro exposure to these 3D-printed resins highlights potential risks of deploying insufficiently characterized materials for biomedical applications and underscores the need for more rigorous evaluation and designation of biocompatible materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hunter B Rogers
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Luhan T Zhou
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Atsuko Kusuhara
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Emily Zaniker
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Saman Shafaie
- Integrated Molecular Structure Education and Research Center (IMSERC), Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Benjamin C Owen
- Integrated Molecular Structure Education and Research Center (IMSERC), Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Francesca E Duncan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
| | - Teresa K Woodruff
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
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4
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Stefaniak AB, Bowers LN, Martin SB, Hammond DR, Ham JE, Wells JR, Fortner AR, Knepp AK, du Preez S, Pretty JR, Roberts JL, du Plessis JL, Schmidt A, Duling MG, Bader A, Virji MA. Large-Format Additive Manufacturing and Machining Using High-Melt-Temperature Polymers. Part II: Characterization of Particles and Gases. ACS CHEMICAL HEALTH & SAFETY 2021; 28:268-278. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chas.0c00129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandr B. Stefaniak
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Lauren N. Bowers
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Stephen B. Martin
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Duane R. Hammond
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio 45213, United States
| | - Jason E. Ham
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - J. R. Wells
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Alyson R. Fortner
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Alycia K. Knepp
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Sonette du Preez
- North-West University, Occupational Hygiene and Health Research Initiative, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Jack R. Pretty
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio 45213, United States
| | - Jennifer L. Roberts
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio 45213, United States
| | - Johan L. du Plessis
- North-West University, Occupational Hygiene and Health Research Initiative, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Austin Schmidt
- Additive Engineering Solutions, Akron, Ohio 44305, United States
| | - Matthew G. Duling
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Andrew Bader
- Additive Engineering Solutions, Akron, Ohio 44305, United States
| | - M. Abbas Virji
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
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Lehle JD, McCarrey JR. Differential susceptibility to endocrine disruptor-induced epimutagenesis. ENVIRONMENTAL EPIGENETICS 2020; 6:dvaa016. [PMID: 33324495 PMCID: PMC7722801 DOI: 10.1093/eep/dvaa016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
There is now considerable evidence indicating the potential for endocrine disrupting chemicals to alter the epigenome and for subsets of these epigenomic changes or "epimutations" to be heritably transmitted to offspring in subsequent generations. While there have been many studies indicating how exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals can disrupt various organs associated with the body's endocrine systems, there is relatively limited information regarding the relative susceptibility of different specific organs, tissues, or cell types to endocrine disrupting chemical-induced epimutagenesis. Here we review available information about different organs, tissues, cell types, and/or cell lines which have been shown to be susceptible to specific endocrine disrupting chemical-induced epimutations. In addition, we discuss possible mechanisms that may be involved, or impacted by this tissue- or cell type-specific, differential susceptibility to different endocrine disrupting chemicals. Finally, we summarize available information indicating that certain periods of development display elevated susceptibility to endocrine disrupting chemical exposure and we describe how this may affect the extent to which germline epimutations can be transmitted inter- or transgenerationally. We conclude that cell type-specific differential susceptibility to endocrine disrupting chemical-induced epimutagenesis is likely to directly impact the extent to, or manner in, which endocrine disrupting chemical exposure initially induces epigenetic changes to DNA methylation and/or histone modifications, and how these endocrine disrupting chemical-induced epimutations can then subsequently impact gene expression, potentially leading to the development of heritable disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake D Lehle
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, 1 UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - John R McCarrey
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, 1 UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
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Perkins SE, Hankenson FC. Nonexperimental Xenobiotics: Unintended Consequences of Intentionally Administered Substances in Terrestrial Animal Models. ILAR J 2020; 60:216-227. [PMID: 32574354 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilaa003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Review of the use of nonexperimental xenobiotics in terrestrial animal models and the potential unintended consequences of these compounds, including drug-related side effects and adverse reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott E Perkins
- Tufts Comparative Medicine Services, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts; and Department of Environmental and Population Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, Massachusetts
| | - F Claire Hankenson
- Campus Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
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Hasenau JJ. Reproducibility and Comparative aspects of Terrestrial Housing Systems and Husbandry Procedures in Animal Research Facilities on Study Data. ILAR J 2020; 60:228-238. [DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilz021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Revised: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
As mentioned in other chapters, reproducibility of research data is very complicated and has numerous contributors for concerns. This chapter will discuss the animal housing systems and corresponding husbandry practices in regard to current practices and known and potential confounders in the research environment. This area has a very high impact for reproducibility and comparability of study data outcomes.
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Hunt PA. WOMEN IN REPRODUCTIVE SCIENCE: Errors and insight: intentional and accidental studies of human chromosome abnormalities. Reproduction 2019; 158:F91-F99. [PMID: 30913534 PMCID: PMC9383270 DOI: 10.1530/rep-19-0013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Perhaps every career makes sense in retrospect. I have spent mine facing a series of accidental environmental exposures that derailed our studies but provided new insight. Although at times I have felt more catalyst than scientist, the journey has been extraordinary, and the problem I have spent my career studying - human aneuploidy - has taken on new significance with growing evidence of the sensitivity of the germline to the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Hunt
- Meyer Distinguished Professor, School of Molecular Biosciences and Center for Reproductive Biology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
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Bruno KA, Mathews JE, Yang AL, Frisancho JA, Scott AJ, Greyner HD, Molina FA, Greenaway MS, Cooper GM, Bucek A, Morales-Lara AC, Hill AR, Mease AA, Di Florio DN, Sousou JM, Coronado AC, Stafford AR, Fairweather D. BPA Alters Estrogen Receptor Expression in the Heart After Viral Infection Activating Cardiac Mast Cells and T Cells Leading to Perimyocarditis and Fibrosis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10:598. [PMID: 31551929 PMCID: PMC6737078 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Myocarditis is an inflammatory heart disease that leads to dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and heart failure. Sex hormones play an important role in the development of myocarditis with testosterone driving disease in males and estrogen being cardioprotective in females. The human population is widely exposed to the endocrine disruptor bisphenol A (BPA) from plastics such as water bottles, plastic food containers, copy paper, and receipts. Several clinical and numerous animal studies have found an association between elevated BPA levels and cardiovascular disease. A recent report found elevated levels of BPA in the serum of patients with DCM compared to healthy controls. In this study we examined whether exposure to BPA for 2 weeks prior to viral infection and leading up to myocarditis at day 10 altered inflammation in female BALB/c mice housed in standard plastic cages/water bottles with soy-free food and bedding. We found that a human relevant dose of BPA (25 μg/L) in drinking water, with an estimated exposure of 5 μg BPA/kg BW, significantly increased myocarditis and pericarditis compared to control water without altering viral genome levels in the heart. BPA exposure activated ERα and ERβ in the spleen 24 h after infection and phosphorylated ERα and ERβ during myocarditis, but decreased ERα and increased ERβ mRNA in the heart as measured by qRT-PCR. Exposure to BPA significantly increased CD4+ T cells, IFNγ, IL-17A, TLR4, caspase-1, and IL-1β in the heart. BPA exposure also increased cardiac fibrosis compared to controls. Mast cells, which are associated with cardiac remodeling, were found to increase in number and degranulation, particularly along the pericardium. Interestingly, plastic caging/water bottle exposure alone led to increased mast cell numbers, pericardial degranulation and fibrosis in female BALB/c mice compared to animals housed in glass cages/water bottles with soy-free food and bedding. These data suggest that BPA exposure may increase the risk of developing myocarditis after a viral infection in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn Ann Bruno
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
- Center for Clinical and Translational Science, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | | | - Alex Lingyun Yang
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - J. Augusto Frisancho
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Ashley Jennie Scott
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Henry David Greyner
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Frank Anthony Molina
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Merci Shekinah Greenaway
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - George Maxwell Cooper
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Adriana Bucek
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | | | - Anneliese Ruth Hill
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
| | - Anna Alisa Mease
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
| | - Damian Nicolas Di Florio
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
- Center for Clinical and Translational Science, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
| | - John Michael Sousou
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
| | | | - Allison Ray Stafford
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
| | - DeLisa Fairweather
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
- Center for Clinical and Translational Science, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
- *Correspondence: DeLisa Fairweather
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