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Glasenapp A, Bankstahl JP, Bähre H, Glage S, Bankstahl M. Subcutaneous and orally self-administered high-dose carprofen shows favorable pharmacokinetic and tolerability profiles in male and female C57BL/6J mice. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1430726. [PMID: 39376917 PMCID: PMC11457584 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1430726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 08/26/2024] [Indexed: 10/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Surgical interventions in mice require appropriate pain relief to ensure animal welfare and to avoid influence of pain on research findings. Carprofen is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug commonly used as an analgesic for interventions inducing mild to moderate pain in laboratory rodents. Despite its frequent use, species-specific data on pharmacokinetics (PK), side effects, and potential impact on behavioral pain indicators are limited. Methods We determined PK and tolerability profiles of carprofen in healthy male and female C57BL/6J mice (n = 42), administered at highest recommended doses via single subcutaneous (s.c.) injection (20 mg/kg) and oral self-administration (25 mg/kg/24 h) per drinking water (d.w.) for 5 days. Plasma concentrations were measured at various time points after the start of the treatment (n = 6 per time point), and side effects were evaluated using a modified Irwin test battery, hematology, and histopathology. Additionally, potential interference with cage-side behaviors commonly used for pain assessment, such as the mouse grimace scale, wheel running, burrowing, nesting, and grooming activity, was investigated. Results Maximum plasma concentrations of 133.4 ± 11.3 μg/ml were reached 1 h after single s.c. injection with an elimination half-life of 8.52 h. Intake from d.w. resulted in a steady state within 24 h after the start of the treatment with plasma levels of around 60 μg/ml over 5 days in both sexes. The medicated water was well-accepted, and increased d.w. intake was observed in the first 24 h after exposure (p < 0.0001). The Irwin test revealed only minor influence on tested behavior and physiological functions. However, during treatment via d.w., an increase in body temperature (p < 0.0001) was observed, as well as a reduction in voluntary wheel running activity by 49-70% in male mice. Moreover, grooming behavior was slightly affected. Hematology and histopathology were without pathological findings that could be attributed to carprofen treatment. High-dose carprofen can be considered safe and of favorable PK for both administration routes assessed in healthy C57BL/6J mice of both sexes. Further efficacy evaluation of carprofen as monoanalgesic or component of multimodal post-surgical regimens is clearly encouraged; however, the impact on behavioral markers used for pain assessment should be considered in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aylina Glasenapp
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science and Central Animal Facility, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jens P. Bankstahl
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Heike Bähre
- Department of Pharmacology, Research Core Unit Metabolomics, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Silke Glage
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science and Central Animal Facility, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Marion Bankstahl
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science and Central Animal Facility, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Department of Biological Sciences and Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Alamaw ED, Casey KM, Tien K, Franco BD, Gorman G, Cotton RM, Nagamine C, Jampachaisri K, Sharp P, Pacharinsak C, Huss MK. Carprofen Attenuates Postoperative Mechanical and Thermal Hypersensitivity after Plantar Incision in Immunodeficient NSG Mice. Comp Med 2024; 74:105-114. [PMID: 38553034 PMCID: PMC11078281 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-23-000058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
Immunodeficient NSG mice are reported to be less responsive to buprenorphine analgesia. Here, we used NSG mice to compare the efficacy of the commonly used dose of carprofen (5 mg/kg) with 5 and 10 times that dose (25 and 50 mg/kg) for attenuating postoperative mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity following an incisional pain model. Male and female NSG mice (n = 45) were randomly assigned to one of 4 groups and received daily subcutaneous injections for 3 d: saline (5 mL/kg), 5 mg/kg carprofen (Carp5), 25 mg/kg carprofen (Carp25), and 50 mg/kg carprofen (Carp50). Mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity were assessed 24 h before and at 4, 24, and 48 h after surgery. Plasma carprofen concentrations were measured in a separate group of mice (n = 56) on days 0 (at 2, 4, 12, and 23 h), 1, and 2 after the first, second, and third doses, respectively. Toxicity was assessed through daily fecal occult blood testing (n = 27) as well as gross and histopathologic evaluation (n = 15). Our results indicated that the saline group showed both mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity throughout the study. Carp5 did not attenuate mechanical or thermal hypersensitivity at any time point. Carp25 attenuated mechanical and thermal (except for the 4-h time point) hypersensitivity. Carp50 attenuated only thermal hypersensitivity at 24 h. Fecal occult blood was detected in 1 of 8 Carp25-treated mice at 48 and 72 h. Histopathologic abnormalities (gastric ulceration, ulcerative enteritis, and renal lesions) were observed in some Carp50-treated mice. Plasma carprofen concentrations were dose and time dependent. Our results indicate that Carp25 attenuated postoperative mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity more effectively than Carp5 or Carp50 in NSG mice with incisional pain. Therefore, we recommend providing carprofen at 25 mg/kg SID for incisional pain procedures using immunodeficient NSG mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eden D Alamaw
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California;,
| | - Kerriann M Casey
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Krystal Tien
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Benjamin D Franco
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Gregory Gorman
- Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Renee M Cotton
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Claude Nagamine
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | | | | | | | - Monika K Huss
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
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Karkoszka M, Rok J, Kowalska J, Rzepka Z, Banach K, Wrześniok D. Phototoxic action of meloxicam contributes to dysregulation of redox homeostasis in normal human skin cells - Molecular and biochemical analysis of antioxidant enzymes in melanocytes and fibroblasts. Toxicol In Vitro 2024; 95:105745. [PMID: 38036073 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2023.105745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
The phototoxic effect of meloxicam (MLX) raises the question of the effect of the drug on the redox homeostasis of normal human skin cells. The main objective of the study was to analyze the effect of MLX and/or UVA radiation (UVAR) on the redox homeostasis of human normal skin cells - melanocytes and fibroblasts. MLX was found to affect the activity and expression of enzymes of the antioxidant system differently depending on the cell line used. The drug decreased the activity and expression of superoxide dismutase type 1 and 2 (SOD1 and SOD2), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in fibroblasts, while increasing the activity of these enzymes in melanocytes. UVA radiation enhanced the effects of the drug. In conclusion, MLX in combination with UVAR induces oxidative stress in melanocytes and fibroblasts, however, the analyses showed that the drug's effect the activity and expression of SOD, CAT and GPx differently, depending on the cell line. The observed dissimilarity between tested cell lines may result from the presence of melanin pigments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Karkoszka
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, Jagiellońska4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland.
| | - Jakub Rok
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, Jagiellońska4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland.
| | - Justyna Kowalska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, Jagiellońska4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland.
| | - Zuzanna Rzepka
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, Jagiellońska4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland.
| | - Klaudia Banach
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, Jagiellońska4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland.
| | - Dorota Wrześniok
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, Jagiellońska4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland.
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McKenna BA, Weaver HL, Kim J, Bowman MW, Knych HK, Kendall LV. A Pharmacokinetic and Analgesic Efficacy Study of Carprofen in Female CD1 Mice. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2023; 62:545-552. [PMID: 37758465 PMCID: PMC10772918 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-23-000041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
The minimization of pain in research animals is a scientific and ethical necessity. Carprofen is commonly used for pain management in mice; however, some data suggest that the standard dosage of 5 mg/kg may not provide adequate analgesia after surgery. We hypothesized that a higher dose of carprofen in mice would reduce pain-associated behaviors and improve analgesia without toxic effects. A pharmacokinetic study was performed in mice given carprofen subcutaneously at 10 or 20 mg/kg. Plasma concentrations were measured at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, and 48 h after dosing (n = 3 per time point and treatment). At these doses, plasma levels were above the purported therapeutic level for at least 12 and 24 h, respectively, with respective half-lives of 14.9 and 10.2 h. For the efficacy study, 10 mice per group received anesthesia with or without an ovariectomy. Mice were then given 5 or 10 mg/kg of carprofen, or saline subcutaneously every 12 h. Orbital tightening, arched posture, wound licking, rearing, grooming, nesting behavior, and activity were assessed before surgery and at 4, 8, 12, 24, and 48 h after surgery. The von Frey responses were assessed before and at 4, 12, 24, and 48 h after surgery. The efficacy study showed that all surgery groups had significantly higher scores for orbital tightening, arched posture, and wound licking than did the anesthesia-only groups at 4, 8, 12, and 24-h time points. At the 8 h time point, the surgery groups treated with carprofen had significantly lower arched posture scores than did the surgery group treated with saline only. No significant differences were found between carprofen treatment groups for rearing, grooming, von Frey, activity, or nesting behavior at any time point. These results indicate that subcutaneous carprofen administered at these doses does not provide sufficient analgesia to alleviate postoperative pain in female CD1 mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon A McKenna
- Laboratory Animal Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Hannah L Weaver
- Laboratory Animal Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Jeffrey Kim
- Comparative Medicine Research Unit, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Madelyn W Bowman
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Heather K Knych
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California; and
- Department of Veterinary Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Lon V Kendall
- Laboratory Animal Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Jin J, Li L, Wang Y, Li K, Qian A, Li W, Liu Q, Wen C, Liu Q, Yan G, Xue F. Estrogen alleviates acute and chronic itch in mice. Exp Ther Med 2023; 25:255. [PMID: 37153887 PMCID: PMC10155243 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2023.11954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Itching is associated with various skin diseases, including atopic dermatitis and allergic dermatitis, and leads to repeated scratching behavior and unpleasant sensation. Although clinical and laboratory research data have shown that estrogen is involved in regulating itch, the molecular and cellular basis of estrogen in itch sensation remains elusive. In the present study, it was found that estrogen-treated mice exhibited reduced scratching bouts when challenged with histamine, chloroquine, the proteinase-activated receptor-2 activating peptide SLIGRL-NH2 (SLIGRL), compound 48/80, and 5-hydroxytryptamine when compared with mice in the placebo group. Moreover, estrogen also suppressed scratching bouts in the mouse model of chronic itch induced by acetone-ether-water treatment. Notably, consistent with the behavioral tests, the present RNA-seq analysis showed that estrogen treatment caused significantly reduced expression levels of itch-related molecules such as Mas-related G-protein coupled receptor member A3, neuromedin B and natriuretic polypeptide b. In addition, estradiol attenuated histamine-induced and chloroquine-induced calcium influx in dorsal root ganglion neurons. Collectively, the data of the present study suggested that estrogen modulates the expression of itch-related molecules and suppresses both acute and chronic itch in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhua Jin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Plastic Surgery Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100144, P.R. China
| | - Li Li
- Department of Anatomy, Yanbian University of Medicine, Yanji, Jilin 133002, P.R. China
| | - Yuhui Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Plastic Surgery Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100144, P.R. China
| | - Keyan Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Plastic Surgery Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100144, P.R. China
| | - Aihua Qian
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, P.R. China
| | - Weiou Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Plastic Surgery Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100144, P.R. China
| | - Qing Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100053, P.R. China
| | - Chao Wen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Plastic Surgery Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100144, P.R. China
| | - Quanle Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Plastic Surgery Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100144, P.R. China
| | - Guanghai Yan
- Department of Anatomy, Yanbian University of Medicine, Yanji, Jilin 133002, P.R. China
- Correspondence to: Dr Fushan Xue, Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, 95 Yong-An Road, Xi-Cheng, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
| | - Fushan Xue
- Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
- Correspondence to: Dr Fushan Xue, Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, 95 Yong-An Road, Xi-Cheng, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
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Fritz SA, Ensley SM, Lawrence JR, Van Engen N, Lin Z, Kleinhenz MD, Wulf LW, Rice S, Gorden PJ, Peterson J, Coetzee JF. Pharmacokinetics, Milk Residues, and Toxicological Evaluation of a Single High Dose of Meloxicam Administered at 30 mg/kg per os to Lactating Dairy Cattle. Vet Sci 2023; 10:vetsci10040301. [PMID: 37104456 PMCID: PMC10144785 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci10040301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Adverse effects associated with overdose of NSAIDs are rarely reported in cattle, and the risk level is unknown. If high doses of NSAIDs can be safely administered to cattle, this may provide a longer duration of analgesia than using current doses where repeated administration is not practical. Meloxicam was administered to 5 mid-lactation Holstein dairy cows orally at 30 mg/kg, which is 30 times higher than the recommended 1 mg/kg oral dose. Plasma and milk meloxicam concentrations were determined using high-pressure liquid chromatography with mass spectroscopy (HPLC-MS). Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed by using noncompartmental analysis. The geometric mean maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) was 91.06 µg/mL at 19.71 h (Tmax), and the terminal elimination half-life (T1/2) was 13.79 h. The geometric mean maximum milk concentration was 33.43 µg/mL at 23.74 h, with a terminal elimination half-life of 12.23 h. A thorough investigation into the potential adverse effects of a meloxicam overdose was performed, with no significant abnormalities reported. The cows were humanely euthanized at 10 d after the treatment, and no gross or histologic lesions were identified. As expected, significantly higher plasma and milk concentrations were attained after the administration of 30 mg/kg meloxicam with similar half-lives to previously published reports. However, no identifiable adverse effects were observed with a drug dose 30 times greater than the industry uses within 10 days of treatment. More research is needed to determine the tissue withdrawal period, safety, and efficacy of meloxicam after a dose of this magnitude in dairy cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Fritz
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Steve M Ensley
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Jay R Lawrence
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Nicholas Van Engen
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Zhoumeng Lin
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Michael D Kleinhenz
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Larry W Wulf
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Somchai Rice
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Patrick J Gorden
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Jackie Peterson
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Johann F Coetzee
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
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Kim J, Cannon BA, Freeman LE, Tan S, Knych HK, Kendall LV. High-dose Meloxicam Provides Improved Analgesia in Female CD1 Mice: A Pharmacokinetic and Efficacy Study. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2023; 62:74-80. [PMID: 36755203 PMCID: PMC9936853 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-22-000064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory analgesic drug that is often used in mice. However, doses of 1 to 5 mg/kg given twice daily were recently reported to provide inadequate analgesia. Some studies suggest that doses of up to 20 mg/kg may be necessary for adequate pain management. We investigated the analgesia provided by a high-dose of meloxicam in female CD1 mice. Pharmacokinetic analyses demonstrated that a subcutaneous injection of 10 mg/kg or 20 mg/kg of meloxicam produced therapeutic plasma concentrations for at least 12 h. Ovariectomies via ventral laparotomy were performed to assess analgesic efficacy. Mice were treated immediately before surgery with a high-dose of 10 mg/kg, a low-dose of 2.5 mg/kg, or saline, followed by every 12 h for 36 h. At 3, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h after surgery, mice were assessed for pain based on the following behaviors: distance traveled, time mobile, grooming, rearing, hunched posture, orbital tightening, and von Frey. Initially, some mice received a 20-mg/kg loading dose followed by 10 mg/kg every 12 h. This regimen caused severe morbidity and mortality in 2 mice. Subsequently, this regimen was abandoned, and mice assigned to the high-dose group received 10 mg/kg every 12 h. Mice that received the 10-mg/kg dose after surgery showed less orbital tightening between 3 to 6 h and reduced frequency of hunched posture for 48 h compared with mice that received either the low-dose or saline. However, mice were significantly less mobile for 6 to 12 h after surgery regardless of treatment. These data indicate that a meloxicam dose of 10 mg/kg every 12 h provides better analgesia than a 2.5-mg/kg dose but does not completely alleviate pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences,,Laboratory Animal Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado,,Corresponding author.
| | - Brinley A Cannon
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences,,Laboratory Animal Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Layne E Freeman
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences,,Laboratory Animal Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Sarah Tan
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences,,Laboratory Animal Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Heather K Knych
- Department of Veterinary Molecular Biosciences and K.L. Maddy Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Lon V Kendall
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences,,Laboratory Animal Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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