1
|
Needling Interventions for Sciatica: Choosing Methods Based on Neuropathic Pain Mechanisms-A Scoping Review. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10102189. [PMID: 34069357 PMCID: PMC8158699 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10102189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sciatica is a condition often accompanied by neuropathic pain (NP). Acupuncture and dry needling are common treatments for pain, and the current literature supports acupuncture as an effective treatment for sciatica. However, it is unknown if the mechanisms of NP are considered in the delivery of needling interventions for sciatica. Our objective was to assess the efficacy and the effectiveness of needling therapies, to identify common needling practices and to investigate if NP mechanisms are considered in the treatment of sciatica. A scoping review of the literature on needling interventions for sciatica and a review of the literature on mechanisms related to NP and needling interventions were performed. Electronic literature searches were conducted on PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews from inception to August, 2020 to identify relevant papers. Reference lists of included papers were also manually screened and a related-articles search through PubMed was performed on all included articles. Mapping of the results included description of included studies, summary of results, and identification of gaps in the existing literature. Ten articles were included. All studies used acupuncture for the treatment of sciatica, no studies on dry needling were identified. Current evidence supports the efficacy and effectiveness of acupuncture for sciatica, however, no studies considered underlying NP mechanisms in the acupuncture approach for sciatica and the rationale for using acupuncture was inconsistent among trials. This review reveals that neuropathic pain mechanisms are not routinely considered in needling approaches for patients with sciatica. Studies showed acupuncture to be an effective treatment for sciatic pain, however, further research is warranted to explore if needling interventions for sciatica and NP would be more effective if NP mechanisms are considered.
Collapse
|
2
|
Brewer R, Blum K, Bowirrat A, Modestino EJ, Baron D, Badgaiyan RD, Moran M, Boyett B, Gold MS. Transmodulation of Dopaminergic Signaling to Mitigate Hypodopminergia and Pharmaceutical Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia. CURRENT PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY 2020; 9:164-184. [PMID: 37361136 PMCID: PMC10288629 DOI: 10.2174/2211556009999200628093231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Neuroscientists and psychiatrists working in the areas of "pain and addiction" are asked in this perspective article to reconsider the current use of dopaminergic blockade (like chronic opioid agonist therapy), and instead to consider induction of dopamine homeostasis by putative pro-dopamine regulation. Pro-dopamine regulation could help pharmaceutical opioid analgesic agents to mitigate hypodopaminergia-induced hyperalgesia by inducing transmodulation of dopaminergic signaling. An optimistic view is that early predisposition to diagnosis based on genetic testing, (pharmacogenetic/pharmacogenomic monitoring), combined with appropriate urine drug screening, and treatment with pro-dopamine regulators, could conceivably reduce stress, craving, and relapse, enhance well-being and attenuate unwanted hyperalgesia. These concepts require intensive investigation. However, based on the rationale provided herein, there is a good chance that combining opioid analgesics with genetically directed pro-dopamine-regulation using KB220 (supported by 43 clinical studies). This may become a front-line technology with the potential to overcome, in part, the current heightened rates of chronic opioid-induced hyperalgesia and concomitant Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS) behaviors. Current research does support the hypothesis that low or hypodopaminergic function in the brain may predispose individuals to low pain tolerance or hyperalgesia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raymond Brewer
- Department of Nutrigenomics, Genomic Testing Center, Geneus Health, LLC., San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Kenneth Blum
- Department of Nutrigenomics, Genomic Testing Center, Geneus Health, LLC., San Antonio, TX, USA
- Western University Health Sciences, Pomona, CA., USA
- Division of Neuroscience and Addiction Research, Pathway Healthcare, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Eotvos Loránd University, Institute of Psychology, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Psychiatry, Wright State University Boonshoft School of Medicine and Dayton VA Medical Center, Dayton, OH, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT., USA
| | - Abdalla Bowirrat
- Department of Neuroscience and Genetics, Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, Israel
| | | | - David Baron
- Western University Health Sciences, Pomona, CA., USA
| | - Rajendra D. Badgaiyan
- Department of Psychiatry, ICHAN School of Medicine, Mount Sinai, New York, NYC. & Department of Psychiatry, South Texas Veteran Health Care System, Audie L. Murphy Memorial VA Hospital, San Antonio, TX, Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Medical Center, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Mark Moran
- Department of Nutrigenomics, Genomic Testing Center, Geneus Health, LLC., San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Brent Boyett
- Division of Neuroscience and Addiction Research, Pathway Healthcare, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Bradford Health Services, Madison, AL., USA
| | - Mark S. Gold
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Mo., USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Mendonça MM, Santana JS, da Cruz KR, Ianzer D, Ghedini PC, Nalivaiko E, Fontes MAP, Ferreira RN, Pedrino GR, Colugnati DB, Xavier CH. Involvement of GABAergic and Adrenergic Neurotransmissions on Paraventricular Nucleus of Hypothalamus in the Control of Cardiac Function. Front Physiol 2018; 9:670. [PMID: 29915544 PMCID: PMC5994789 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sympathetic premotor neurons of the paraventricular hypothalamus (PVN) play a role in hemodynamics adjustments during changes in body fluid homeostasis. However, PVN contribution to the tonic control of cardiac function remains to be systematically studied. In this study, we assessed whether GABAergic and adrenergic synapses, known for being active in the PVN, are involved in the control of cardiac function. Adult male Wistar rats (250–350 g; n = 27) were anesthetized with urethane (1.2–1.4 g/kg i.p.) and underwent catheterization of femoral artery to record blood pressure and heart rate. The femoral vein was used to inject the vasoactive agents phenylephrine (10 μg/kg) and sodium nitroprusside (10 μg/kg) and to supplement anesthesia. The cardiac left ventricle was catheterized to record left ventricular pressure and its derivative. Craniotomy allowed for injections (100 nL) into the PVN of: muscimol (20 mM), bicuculline methiodide (0.4 mM), propranolol (10 mM), isoproterenol (100 μM), phentolamine (13 mM), phenylephrine (30 nM). We found that: (i) inhibition of PVN by muscimol, reduced arterial pressure, cardiac chronotropy and inotropy; (ii) disinhibition of PVN neurons by bicuculline evoked positive chronotropy and inotropy, and increase blood pressure; (iii) PVN alpha adrenergic receptors control cardiac chronotropy and inotropy; (iv) beta adrenergic receptors of the PVN do not influence cardiac function; (v) afterload does not contribute to the PVN-evoked inotropy. Our results indicate that the modulation of the activity of PVN neurons exerted by GABAergic and adrenergic mechanisms contribute to the control of cardiac function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle M Mendonça
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Joice S Santana
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Kellen R da Cruz
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Danielle Ianzer
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Paulo C Ghedini
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Eugene Nalivaiko
- Neurocardiology Laboratory, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Marco A P Fontes
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Reginaldo N Ferreira
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Gustavo R Pedrino
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Diego B Colugnati
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Carlos H Xavier
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yan Y, Wang YL, Su Z, Zhang Y, Guo SX, Liu AJ, Wang CH, Sun FJ, Yang J. Effect of oxytocin on the behavioral activity in the behavioral despair depression rat model. Neuropeptides 2014; 48:83-9. [PMID: 24444823 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2014.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Revised: 11/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Oxytocin (OXT), a nonapeptide posterior hormone of the pituitary, is mainly synthesized and secreted in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON). The present study was to investigate in which level, brain or periphery, OXT effecting on the behavioral activity in the behavioral despair depression rat model. The results showed that (1) either the forced swimming or the tail suspension significantly increased OXT concentration in the brain (PVN, SON, frontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, lumbar spinal cord) and in the periphery (posterior pituitary and serum); (2) intraventricular injection (icv) of OXT decreased the animal immobility time, whereas OXT receptor antagonist-desGly-NH2, d(CH2)5[D-Tyr2, Thr-sup-4]OV (icv) increased the animal immobility time in a dose-dependent manner in forced swimming test (FST) and in tail suspension test (TST); (3) neither OXT nor OXT receptor antagonist (intravenous injection) influenced the animal immobility time in FST and in TST. OXT levels were increased in several areas of the brain and in the periphery following the behavioral despair, one stressor, yet pre-treatment with OXT appeared to be beneficial in term of reducing immobility time. The data suggested that behavioral despair could enhance OXT synthesis and secretion not only in the brain but also in the periphery, and OXT in the brain rather than the periphery played a role in the behavioral despair depression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Yan
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, Henan 453100, China
| | - Yong-Liang Wang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, Henan 453100, China
| | - Zhou Su
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, Henan 453100, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, Henan 453100, China
| | - Shuang-Xi Guo
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, Henan 453100, China
| | - Ai-Juan Liu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, Henan 453100, China
| | - Chang-Hong Wang
- Henan Provincial Mental Hospital, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China
| | - Fang-Jie Sun
- Xinxiang Institute for New Medicine, Xinxiang, Henan 453003, China
| | - Jun Yang
- Xinxiang Institute for New Medicine, Xinxiang, Henan 453003, China; Henan Fenghuang Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Xinxiang, Henan 453003, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kim SJ, Chung ES, Lee JH, Lee CH, Kim SK, Lee HJ, Bae H. Electroacupuncture Analgesia Is Improved by Adenoviral Gene Transfer of Dopamine Beta-hydroxylase into the Hypothalamus of Rats. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2013; 17:505-10. [PMID: 24381499 PMCID: PMC3874437 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2013.17.6.505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Revised: 11/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Electroacupuncture (EA) is a modified form of acupuncture that utilizes electrical stimulation. We previously showed that EA stimulated rats were divided into responders that were sensitive to EA and non-responders that were insensitive to EA based on the tail flick latency (TFL) test. The dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) gene was more abundantly expressed in the hypothalamus of responder rats than non-responder rats. To determine whether overexpression of DBH gene expression in the hypothalamus modulate EA analgesia, we constructed a DBH encoding adenovirus and which was then injected into the hypothalamus of SD rats. Microinjection of DBH or control GFP virus into the hypothalamus had no changes on the basal pain threshold measured by a TFL test without EA treatment. However, the analgesic effect of EA was significantly enhanced from seven days after microinjection of the DBH virus, but not after injection of the control GFP virus. DBH expression was significantly higher in the hypothalamus of DBH virus injected rat than control GFP virus or PBS injected rats. Moreover, expression of the DBH gene did not affect the body core temperature, body weight, motor function or learning and memory ability. Although the functional role of DBH in the hypothalamus in the analgesic effect of EA remains unclear, our findings suggest that expression of the DBH gene in the hypothalamus promotes EA analgesia without obvious side-effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Soo-Jeong Kim
- Department of Physiology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| | - Eun Sook Chung
- Department of Physiology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| | - Jun-Ho Lee
- Department of Physiology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| | - Chang Hoon Lee
- Department of Korean Gynecology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| | - Sun Kwang Kim
- Department of Physiology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| | - Hye-Jung Lee
- Acupuncture and Meridian Science Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| | - Hyunsu Bae
- Department of Physiology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kang SY, Roh DH, Kim HW, Han HJ, Beitz AJ, Lee JH. Suppression of adrenal gland-derived epinephrine enhances the corticosterone-induced antinociceptive effect in the mouse formalin test. Eur J Pain 2013; 18:617-28. [PMID: 24155262 DOI: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2013.00410.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is both clinical and experimental evidence to support the application of corticosterone in the management of inflammation and pain. Corticosterone has been used to treat painful inflammatory diseases and can produce antinociceptive effects. Epinephrine is synthesized from norepinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) and works as an endogenous adrenoceptor ligand secreted peripherally by the adrenal medulla. It is currently unclear whether corticosterone's antinociceptive effect is associated with the modulation of peripheral epinephrine. METHODS We first determined whether exogenous corticosterone treatment actually produced an antinociceptive effect in a formalin-induced pain model, and then examined whether this corticosterone-induced antinociceptive effect was altered by suppression of adrenal-derived epinephrine, using the following three suppression methods: (1) inhibition of the PNMT enzyme; (2) blocking peripheral epinephrine receptors; and (3) adrenalectomy. RESULTS Exogenous treatment with corticosterone at a high dose (50 mg/kg), but not at lower doses (5, 25 mg/kg), significantly reduced pain responses in the late phase. Moreover, injection of 2,3-dichloro-a-methylbenzylamine, a PNMT enzyme inhibitor, (10 mg/kg) before corticosterone treatment caused a leftward shift in the dose-response curve for corticosterone and injection of propranolol (5 mg/kg), but not phentolamine, also shifted the dose-response curve to the left during the late phase. Chemical sympathectomy with 6-hydroxydopamine had no effect on corticosterone-induced antinociceptive effect, but injection of a low dose of corticosterone produced an antinociceptive effect in adrenalectomized animals. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that suppression of epinephrine, derived from adrenal gland, enhances the antinociceptive effect of exogenous corticosterone treatment in an inflammatory pain model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Y Kang
- Acupuncture, Moxibustion & Meridian Research Group, Medical Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Blockade of Adrenal Medulla-Derived Epinephrine Potentiates Bee Venom-Induced Antinociception in the Mouse Formalin Test: Involvement of Peripheral β -Adrenoceptors. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2013; 2013:809062. [PMID: 24089621 PMCID: PMC3781998 DOI: 10.1155/2013/809062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The injection of diluted bee venom (DBV) into an acupoint has been used traditionally in eastern medicine to treat a variety of inflammatory chronic pain conditions. We have previously shown that DBV had a potent antinociceptive efficacy in several rodent pain models. However, the peripheral mechanisms underlying DBV-induced antinociception remain unclear. The present study was designed to investigate the role of peripheral epinephrine on the DBV-induced antinociceptive effect in the mouse formalin assay. Adrenalectomy significantly enhanced the antinociceptive effect of DBV during the late phase of the formalin test, while chemical sympathectomy had no effect. Intraperitoneal injection of epinephrine blocked this adrenalectomy-induced enhancement of the DBV-induced antinociceptive effect. Moreover, injection of a phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) inhibitor enhanced the DBV-induced antinociceptive effect. Administration of nonselective β-adrenergic antagonists also significantly potentiated this DBV-induced antinociception, in a manner similar to adrenalectomy. These results demonstrate that the antinociceptive effect of DBV treatment can be significantly enhanced by modulation of adrenal medulla-derived epinephrine and this effect is mediated by peripheral β-adrenoceptors. Thus, DBV acupoint stimulation in combination with inhibition of peripheral β-adrenoceptors could be a potentially novel strategy for the management of inflammatory pain.
Collapse
|
8
|
Hott SC, Gomes FV, Fabri DRS, Reis DG, Crestani CC, Côrrea FMA, Resstel LBM. Both α1- and β1-adrenoceptors in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis are involved in the expression of conditioned contextual fear. Br J Pharmacol 2013; 167:207-21. [PMID: 22506532 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.01985.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is a limbic structure that is involved in the expression of conditioned contextual fear. Among the numerous neural inputs to the BNST, noradrenergic synaptic terminals are prominent and some evidence suggests an activation of this noradrenergic neurotransmission in the BNST during aversive situations. Here, we have investigated the involvement of the BNST noradrenergic system in the modulation of behavioural and autonomic responses induced by conditioned contextual fear in rats. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Male Wistar rats with cannulae bilaterally implanted into the BNST were submitted to a 10 min conditioning session (6 footshocks, 1.5 ma/ 3 s). Twenty-four hours later freezing and autonomic responses (mean arterial pressure, heart rate and cutaneous temperature) to the conditioning box were measured for 10 min. The adrenoceptor antagonists were administered 10 min before the re-exposure to the aversive context. KEY RESULTS L-propranolol, a non-selective β-adrenoceptor antagonist, and phentolamine, a non-selective α-adrenoceptor antagonist, reduced both freezing and autonomic responses induced by aversive context. Similar results were observed with CGP20712, a selective β(1) -adrenoceptor antagonist, and WB4101, a selective α(1) -antagonist, but not with ICI118,551, a selective β(2) -adrenoceptor antagonist or RX821002, a selective α(2) -antagonist. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These findings support the idea that noradrenergic neurotransmission in the BNST via α(1) - and β(1) -adrenoceptors is involved in the expression of conditioned contextual fear.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara C Hott
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Hazell GG, Hindmarch CC, Pope GR, Roper JA, Lightman SL, Murphy D, O’Carroll AM, Lolait SJ. G protein-coupled receptors in the hypothalamic paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei--serpentine gateways to neuroendocrine homeostasis. Front Neuroendocrinol 2012; 33:45-66. [PMID: 21802439 PMCID: PMC3336209 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2011.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2011] [Revised: 06/24/2011] [Accepted: 07/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of transmembrane receptors in the mammalian genome. They are activated by a multitude of different ligands that elicit rapid intracellular responses to regulate cell function. Unsurprisingly, a large proportion of therapeutic agents target these receptors. The paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON) of the hypothalamus are important mediators in homeostatic control. Many modulators of PVN/SON activity, including neurotransmitters and hormones act via GPCRs--in fact over 100 non-chemosensory GPCRs have been detected in either the PVN or SON. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the expression of GPCRs within the PVN/SON, including data from recent transcriptomic studies that potentially expand the repertoire of GPCRs that may have functional roles in these hypothalamic nuclei. We also present some aspects of the regulation and known roles of GPCRs in PVN/SON, which are likely complemented by the activity of 'orphan' GPCRs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Stephen J. Lolait
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Dorothy Hodgkin Building, School of Clinical Sciences, University of Bristol, Whitson Street, Bristol BS1 3NY, UK
| |
Collapse
|